异基因大鼠全胰十二指肠移植急性排斥反应的病理变化

目的 观察异基因大鼠间行全胰十二指肠移植后急性排斥反应的病理变化特点。方法 实验分两组，Ⅰ组为同基因移植组，Ⅱ组为异基因移植组，术后第3，5，7，10d取移植胰腺及十二指肠行病理检查。结果 Ⅰ组移植胰腺及十二指肠后未见明显病理学改变，Ⅱ组移植胰腺术后第3d出现轻度排斥反应，第5d出现中度排斥反应，第7d发生重度排斥反应，第10d胰腺几乎完全被纤维结缔组织取代，胰腺急排斥反应首先损伤腺泡，以后累及胰腺导管，最后累及胰岛和血管，胰腺和十二指肠急性排斥反应大多同时存在，间质性排斥反应评分相同者占45%，评分不同者均以胰腺评分较高。结论 胰腺急性排斥反应首先累及外分泌组织，最后累及内分泌组织，十二指肠黏膜活检有助于确定有无胰腺急性排斥反应发生。     

猫胰十二指肠移植的组织病理学研究

为研究全胰、十二指肠移植早期自然的排斥反应和应用抗排斥药物后胰、十二指肠移植物的组织病理学变化，对２７只猫施行了全胰、十二指肠移植术。实验分为对照组（Ａ组）、地塞米松组（Ｂ组）、环孢素Ａ１（ＣｓＡ）组（Ｃ组）及ＣｓＡ２组（Ｄ组），在动物死亡时立即切取移植胰做病理检查。结果对照组平均存活６．１天，移植胰腺全部发生坏死，十二指肠粘膜及肠壁亦明显坏死。地塞米松组动物平均存活１８．４天，死亡时移植胰腺和十二指肠呈现程度不等的坏死和急、慢性炎症，小叶间质出现纤维组织增生。Ｃ组每天经口给予ＣｓＡ２０ｍｇ／ｋｇ，动物平均存活时间为１０天，移植胰腺可见程度不等的部分坏死，轻者接近正常，十二指肠基本正常。Ｄ组每天经口给予ＣｓＡ１０ｍｇ／ｋｇ，动物平均存活时间为３１天，移植胰腺组织结构良好，仅部分腺泡萎缩，轻度纤维组织增生，间质有散在淋巴细胞浸润，十二指肠粘膜有慢性炎症反应。研究提示移植胰腺在急性排斥时全部发生坏死，十二指肠粘膜及肠壁也同时发生坏死；免疫抑制剂的抗排斥作用可减轻移植胰腺的损伤，延长移植动物的存活时间，但对肝和肾的毒性损害应注意。     

细胞凋亡在大鼠胰腺移植急性排斥反应中的作用

目的探讨细胞凋亡和相关因子Fas、FasL、bcl-2和bax在大鼠胰腺移植急性排斥反应中的作用,评价十二指肠黏膜活检在胰腺移植中诊断排斥反应的价值。方法选SD和Wistar大鼠行全胰十二指肠移植,实验分同基因胰腺移植组和异基因胰腺移植组。于移植术后第3、5及7d分批处死受体,取移植胰腺和十二指肠标本用HE染色和原位末端脱氧核糖核苷酸转移酶标记技术(TUNEL)检测移植物。免疫组化法检测移植后胰腺和十二指肠Fas、FasL、bcl-2和bax的表达。结果异基因胰腺移植组胰腺和十二指肠病理评分相同者占61.1%(11/18);评分不同者占38.9%(7/18),其中胰腺评分较高者6例,十二指肠黏膜评分较高者仅1例。异基因胰腺移植组胰腺和十二指肠病理学评分和细胞凋亡指数均明显高于同基因胰腺移植组(P<0.05,P<0.01)。胰腺和十二指肠细胞凋亡指数与急性排斥反应的病理学评分成正相关(r=0.965,P<0.01;r=0.942,P<0.01)。随着术后时间延长,排斥反应分级上升,细胞凋亡增加,FasL表达升高,在异基因移植组bcl-2表达下降,而Fas和bax表达无明显变化。结论细胞凋亡与移植胰腺急性排斥反应的严重程度呈正相关,细胞凋亡指数可作为判断移植物损伤程度的指标。FasL和bcl-2与胰腺移植急性排斥及组织损伤密切相关。十二指肠黏膜活检有助于判断有无胰腺急性排斥反应发生。     

PFC,TNF-α,NO在猪胰腺移植急性排斥反应中的意义

目的　研究胰周渗液细胞学 (PFC)检查、血清肿瘤坏死因子 (TNF α)和一氧化氮 (NO )在猪胰腺移植急性排斥反应中的价值。方法　建立猪胰腺移植模型后随机分成 3组 ,每组 6头。A组为同种异体胰腺移植 ,不使用免疫抑制治疗 ;B组为同种异体胰腺移植 ,使用免疫抑制治疗 ;C组为自体胰腺移植 ,不使用免疫抑制治疗。术后行连续穿刺活组织检查确立急性排斥反应的发生 ,并观察急性排斥反应发生时PFC以及血清TNF α和NO等的变化。结果　 ( 1)A组胰腺移植成功 5只 ,失败 1只。存活 5只均发生急性排斥反应 ;B组 6只均移植成功 ,其中 2只发生轻度急性排斥反应 ;C组移植成功 4只均未发生急性排斥反应。 ( 2 )A组术后第 6天PFC阳性率 80 .0 % ( 4 /5 ) ,B组 16.7% ( 1/6)和C组 0 % ( 4 /4 ) ;术后第 7天A组血清TNF α和NO显著升高 ,B和C组术后升高不显著。结论　PFC ,TNF α ,NO可望作为猪胰腺移植急性排斥反应早期观察指标 ,对诊断急性排斥反应具有重要意义     

T细胞亚群、IL-2α变化与猪全胰十二指肠移植排斥反应的关系

目的探讨外周血T细胞亚群、IL-2及TNF-α变化与猪全胰十二指肠移植排斥反应的关系。方法建立小型猪全胰十二指肠移植动物模型,于术前及术后不同时相点采集外周血,用链菌素亲生物素-过氧化酶连接(S．P)法测定T细胞亚群,用酶联免疫吸附(ELISA)双抗体夹心法检测IL-2及INF-α含量,并与移植胰腺穿刺病理活检结果进行比较。结果移植胰腺穿刺病理检查显示:移植术后第3天,CD4、CD4／CD8水平较术前明显升高,与排斥反应发生时间基本同步;IL-2在移植术后第5天才有明显升高,晚于排斥反应发生时间;TNF-α则于移植术后第2天即有明显升高,早于排斥反应发生时间。结论 T 细胞亚群、IL-2及TNF-α均参与了猪全胰十二指肠移植排斥反应过程,动态监测TNF-α及T细胞亚群的变化有助于预测及早期诊断移植胰腺排斥反应。     

腺泡细胞凋亡在大鼠胰腺移植急性排斥反应中的意义

目的：观察移植胰腺的腺泡细胞凋亡及其与急性排斥反应的关系。方法：选用SD和Wistar大鼠进行全胰十二指移植。实验分为同基因移植组（Wistar→Wistar）和异基因移植组（SD→Wistar）两组。于术后第3d、5d和7d分批处死受体，取移植胰腺标本用HE染色和原位末端标记（TUNEL）技术检测移植胰腺切片，进行排斥反应的病理学评分和计数凋亡指数（AI）。结果：发生凋亡的细胞主要是腺泡细胞，同基因移植组胰腺有散在的腺泡细胞凋亡，AI在术后无明显变化。异基因移植组胰腺腺泡细胞凋亡在术后第3d、5d和7d逐渐升高，AI与急性排斥反应的病理学评分成正相关。结论：细胞凋亡与移植胰腺急性排斥反应的严重程度显著相关，凋亡指数可作为判断移植物损伤程度的指标，对急性排斥反应的诊断有一定的参考价值。     

猪同种异体胰十二指肠移植门静脉回流肠内引流模型的实验研究

目的研究猪胰十二指肠移植治疗实验性Ⅰ型糖尿病的可行性及其意义。方法选四川当地杂种长白猪46头(体重25~32kg),分为供、受体2组(n=23),进行同种异体胰十二指肠移植手术。观察术后手术并发症,术前、术中及术后1、3、5及7d检测血糖、胰岛素及胰高血糖素水平,观察移植物存活及急性排斥反应情况。结果进行猪同种异体胰十二指肠移植23例,手术中因麻醉意外死亡1例,手术成功率为95.7%。发生手术并发症2例,其中静脉血栓形成1例(4.5%),十二指肠空肠吻合口漏1例(4.5%)。在切除胰腺30min内即可见血糖升高,术后第3d开始恢复至术前水平。胰岛素和胰高血糖素在切除胰腺30min内开始下降,术后第3d开始恢复到术前水平。手术后第1d开始出现排斥反应,并逐渐加重,第9d达到高峰,但未出现血糖、胰岛素及胰高血糖素水平变化和排斥反应的临床症状。结论猪胰十二指肠移植治疗Ⅰ型糖尿病效果确实、可靠,移植术后急性排斥反应是影响术后功能的主要因素。     

胰腺腺泡细胞凋亡在大鼠胰腺移植急性排斥反应中的作用

胰腺移植是治疗胰岛素依赖型糖尿病的有效方法。胰腺移植之后患者可获得正常的糖代谢，不需要外源性胰岛素并可逆转糖尿病的并发症和提高生活质量。移植后排斥反应是影响胰腺移植成功与否的重要因素。近年来的研究表明，器官移植急性排斥反应中靶细胞的凋亡是导致靶细胞损害并进而引起移植物丧失功能的机理之一。本研究动态观察大鼠胰腺移植后细胞凋亡的变化，及其与急性排斥反应的关系，初步探讨大鼠胰腺移植急性排斥反应的发生机制，以期为临床胰腺移植急性排斥反应的诊断和治疗提供有益的帮助。     

猪胰肾联合移植门静脉回流和体静脉回流术式对急性排斥反应的影响

目的 比较胰肾联合移植门静脉回流（PE）和体静脉回流（SE）两种术式对移植物急性排斥反应的影响.方法 48例无亲缘当地杂交第1代长白猪,随机分成PE组（24只）和SE组（24只）,每组内行交叉配血,相合者组成供受猪.切除受猪胰腺制成1型糖尿病模型,同时切除右肾.PE组门静脉与受猪肠系膜上静脉或门静脉行端侧吻合,SE组门静脉与受猪肝下下腔静脉吻合,外分泌均采用肠道引流.术后1、3、5、7 d监测血糖和移植肾尿液肌酐水平;术后3、7 d开腹取移植胰和肾组织行病理学检查,参照Nakhleh和Banff标准对移植胰腺和肾进行排斥反应评分.结果 PE组和SE组各行12例移植手术,两组移植物冷缺血时间差异无统计学意义[PE组为（231.25±19.86）min ;SE组为（234.60±15.80） min,P〉0.05].两组术后1、3、5、7 d血糖和移植肾尿液肌酐水平差异无统计学意义（P〉0.05）.SE组较PE组移植胰腺和肾急性排斥反应发生早且重,两组急性排斥反应病理评分差异有统计学意义（P〈0.05）.结论 猪胰肾联合移植内分泌PE与SE相比,可减轻和延缓急性排斥反应.     

胰肾联合移植中供体切取和修整的技巧

目的:总结胰肾一期联合移植中供体胰十二指肠及肾脏切取及修整的经验。方法:回顾性分析19例胰肾联合移植术中供体胰十二指肠及肾脏切取的方法与移植物的修整技巧。结果:无1例发生移植物损伤。联合移植术后9 d之内18例完全停用外源性胰岛素,空腹血糖正常，尿糖≤（+）。术后2～4 d，血肌酐和尿素氮降至正常。3例出现移植肾脏急性排斥反应，2例发生移植胰腺急性排斥反应，给予甲泼尼龙冲击治疗后恢复正常。1例术后因移植物加速排斥反应，术后11 d切除移植胰、肾。结论:胰肾联合移植手术中，供体胰十二指肠及肾脏的切取及修整是手术成功的重要因素之一。     

Sequential histopathologic changes in pancreaticoduodenal allograft rejection in dogs

To determine the nature and sequence of the histologic changes in the early rejection of pancreaticoduodenal allografts and to assess the correlation between pancreaticoduodenal biopsy findings and the pathologic changes in the graft, we performed serial cystoscopically directed needle biopsies of pancreaticoduodenal allografts in 18 dogs and compared the findings with the histologic changes in 16 autografts as controls. Tissue adequate for evaluation was obtained by the biopsy technique in 70% of instances. The earliest and most characteristic manifestation of rejection was diffuse mixed inflammatory infiltrates involving the pancreatic acinar tissue and duodenum. The biopsy findings correlated well with the changes in the resected pancreatic specimens. Cellular rejection in the duodenum correlated with rejection in the pancreatic graft. There were no changes in the autografts that resembled cellular rejection. We conclude that, in the canine model, cystoscopically directed needle biopsy of pancreaticoduodenal allografts consistently provides adequate tissue for the diagnosis of rejection; the status of the graft can be monitored by serial biopsies of pancreatic acinar tissue and, possibly, by serial biopsies of the duodenal wall alone.     

Duodenal histology for monitoring treatment of acute rejection in pancreaticoduodenal allografts in rats

BACKGROUND: Although the value of duodenal histology as a means to diagnose acute rejection in pancreaticoduodenal allografts has been validated, it is not known how the duodenum responds to antirejection treatment in comparison with the pancreas. METHODS: Diabetic Lewis rats received a pancreaticoduodenal allograft. Cyclosporine was given for 5 days and then discontinued for 2 days (group 1), for 4 days (group 2), for 6 days (group 3), for 8 days (group 4), for 9 days (group 5), and for 10 days (group 6). Two animals of each group were killed for histology at the end of immunosuppressive-free intervals. In the remaining rats, rejection was treated with methylprednisolone on 3 consecutive days. Duodenal histology was compared with pancreatic morphology before and after treatment of rejection. RESULTS: Duodenal histology had a positive and negative predictive value of 100% for detection of acute rejection in the pancreatic portion of the graft. After antirejection treatment, duodenal morphology was however less accurate (positive predictive value, 96%; negative predictive value, 67%). The Spearman correlation coefficient (p) of duodenal and pancreatic rejection grades was higher before antirejection treatment (p=1.0) than thereafter (p=0.724). Considering interstitial and vascular changes separately, vascular rejection correlated to a higher extent than interstitial rejection between the two portions of the graft (p=0.725 vs. p=0.677). CONCLUSIONS: Duodenal histology accurately predicts the initial diagnosis of rejection of the pancreas. However, after treatment of acute rejection, duodenal morphology is more likely to recover from rejection than the pancreas. Awareness of this phenomenon might be important for the interpretation of duodenal follow-up biopsies.     

Histologic diagnosis of rejection by using cystoscopically directed needle biopsy specimens from dysfunctional pancreatoduodenal allografts with exocrine drainage into the bladder

To determine the histologic features of rejection and to identify nonrejection causes of human pancreatic allograft dysfunction, we analyzed 31 needle biopsy specimens (17 pancreatic, 14 duodenal) obtained under cystoscopic direction from 15 dysfunctional pancreatoduodenal allografts with exocrine drainage into the bladder. Eight allografts undergoing rejection showed the most common histologic features of rejection to be diffuse mixed inflammatory infiltrates of pancreatic acinar tissue and duodenum wall. Diffuse infiltration of pancreatic acinar tissue by neutrophils was the earliest histologic change in rejection. Seven dysfunctional allografts not undergoing rejection ("nonrejection") showed a normal pancreas or various changes including acinar dilation with inspissation of secretions, fibrosis, cytomegalovirus inclusions, and enzymatic necrosis. The histologic changes in the duodenum paralleled those in the pancreas in both rejection and nonrejection allografts. We conclude that the histologic features of rejection in pancreatoduodenal allografts are distinctive. The changes seen in biopsy specimens accurately reflect the state of the graft and can be used to diagnose rejection and to identify other causes of graft dysfunction. Biopsy samples from the duodenum as well as the pancreas are diagnostically useful. The biopsy findings can be used to guide the clinical management of rejection and in the development of other noninvasive tests for rejection.     

Pancreas transplant rejection episodes are not revealed by biopsies of the donor duodenum in a prospective study with paired biopsies

The surgical technique with duodeno‐duodenal enteroanastomosis of pancreas transplants allows for representative endoscopic ultrasound‐guided needle biopsies of the donor duodenum and the pancreas graft. We assessed whether histological findings in transplanted donor duodenal biopsies can indicate rejection in the transplanted pancreas. Since September 2012, a duodeno‐duodenal enteroanastomosis has been the default technique for pancreas transplantations at our center. In 67 recipients we prospectively examined 113 endoscopic ultrasound‐guided procedures with representative biopsies from the duodenum grafts and the pancreas grafts (97 per protocol and 16 on indication). All graft biopsies were evaluated according to established rejection criteria. A total of 22 biopsy‐proven pancreas rejections were detected, with 2 matching duodenal biopsies showing rejection. This gives a sensitivity of 9% for detection of a pancreas rejection by duodenal biopsies. The other matching duodenal biopsies were either normal (n = 13) or indeterminate (n = 7). Rejection of the donor duodenum was found in only 6/113 biopsies, with 2 concurrent pancreas rejections. In conclusion, the donor duodenum is not a useful reporter organ for rejection in the pancreas graft.     

改良的保留十二指肠胰头全切除术

目的总结分析我中心近年来对胰头部良性病变实施改良的保留十二指肠胰头全切除术的效果。方法回顾性分析我中心2004年6月至2008年6月实施了改良的保留十二指肠胰头切除术的27例患者的临床资料。对该术式的手术方式,并发症及术后近期生存质量进行评价。结果患者手术死亡0例,术后发生胰瘘2例,十二指肠瘘1例,胆瘘1例,其并发症发生率为14．81％,平均手术时间约4h,术后平均住院日为16d。结论保留十二指肠的胰头切除术通过保留胰十二指肠上动脉后支及其血管弓,仅在十二指肠乳头及胆总管后壁残留少许胰腺组织,手术切除彻底,术后并发症发生率低,手术操作简便,患者术后恢复快,住院时间短。该改良术式可以作为治疗胰头部良性病变的重要术式。     

A cystoscopically directed biopsy technique developed in canine pancreaticoduodenal transplantation

Present methods of monitoring for allograft dysfunction in pancreaticoduodenal transplantation (urinary amylase, scintigraphy) give indirect evidence and do not consistently allow recognition of early, potentially reversible rejection from other causes of allograft dysfunction. For better diagnosis of allograft dysfunction, adequate tissue specimens must be obtained without trauma to the allograft. We devised a cystoscopically directed needle biopsy technique to obtain tissue from the canine pancreaticoduodenal allograft. This technique is made feasible by a duodenocystostomy similar to that in human pancreaticoduodenal transplantation. The duodenum acts as a port of entry for the biopsy instruments, providing access to the pancreas. A 24F side-viewing nephroscope is used to view the duodenum. The tissue specimen is obtained with an 18-gauge, 350 mm Menghini aspiration needle inserted by way of the nephroscope through the duodenum and into the pancreas. Pancreaticoduodenal allotransplantation with a duodenocystostomy for exocrine drainage was performed in 18 dogs. Of 59 serial biopsy specimens obtained, 41 (69.5%) were adequate for pathologic evaluation. The principal complication associated with the technique was minimal bleeding at the biopsy site, occurring in 22 of the 59 biopsy procedures. This cystoscopically directed biopsy technique appears to be safe, often obtains adequate tissue for diagnosis, and may be directly applicable for distinguishing causes of allograft dysfunction in human pancreaticoduodenal transplantation.     

Pancreatic and duodenal injuries: keep it simple

BACKGROUND: The management of pancreatic and duodenal trauma has moved away from complex reconstructive procedures to simpler methods in keeping with the trend towards organ-specific, damage control surgery. METHOD: A retrospective case note review was undertaken over a 30-month period to evaluate a simplified protocol for the management of these injuries. RESULTS: Of 100 consecutive patients there were 51 with pancreatic injury, 30 with a duodenal injury and 19 with combined pancreaticoduodenal trauma. Overall mortality was 18.0%, with a late mortality (after 24 h) of 9.9%. This is comparable to previous studies. Morbidity from abscesses, fistulas and anastomotic breakdown was acceptably low. CONCLUSION: The concept of staged laparotomy can be successfully applied to wounds of the pancreas and duodenum. Debridement of devitalized tissue and drainage can be employed for most cases of pancreatic trauma. Most duodenal injuries can be managed with debridement and primary repair. Temporary exclusion and reoperation should be employed for unstable patients.     

Prolongation of segmental and pancreaticoduodenal allografts in the primate with total-lymphoid irradiation and cyclosporine

The prolongation of segmental and pancreaticoduodenal allografts (PDA) by total lymphoid irradiation (TLI) and in combination with cyclosporine (CsA) was assessed in a well established total pancreatectomy, diabetic, primate transplantation model. Pancreatic transplantation was performed in 119 pancreatectomized baboons (Papio ursinus). Of a total of 109 allografts performed, 71 were segmental allografts (open duct drainage) and 38 PDA. Of 119 graft recipients, 10 received segmental pancreatic autografts. TLI and CsA administered separately to segmental allograft recipients resulted in modest allograft survival and indefinite graft survival was not observed. 8 of 17 (47%) segmental allograft recipients that received TLI and CsA had graft survival beyond 100 days, indicating highly significant pancreatic allograft survival. All long-term segmental allograft recipients were rendered normoglycemic (plasma glucose less than 8 mmol/L) by this immunosuppressive regimen. In contrast, poor results were observed in PDA recipients treated with TLI and CsA. Mean survival in 18 treated PDA recipients was 23.8 days, 8 survived longer than 20 days (44.4%), and 1 greater than 100 days (5.5%). Despite treatment, early rejection of the duodenum in PDA recipients frequently resulted in necrosis and perforation and contributed to a high morbidity and mortality. This study indicates that, in contrast to the significant prolongation of segmental allografts by TLI and CsA, poor immunosuppression was achieved by this regimen in PDA recipients and was associated with a high morbidity and mortality caused by early rejection of the duodenum.     

Evidence that the soluble interleukin 2 receptor level may determine the optimal time for cystoscopically-directed biopsy in pancreaticoduodenal allograft recipients

In 18 consecutive pancreaticoduodenal allograft recipients (15 combined kidney/pancreas and 3 pancreas only after a prior successful kidney transplantation) operated on between December 1987 and February 1989, we studied the soluble interleukin 2 receptor (SIL-2R) level over time. All pancreaticoduodenal allografts were transplanted with exocrine drainage via a duodenocystostomy that allowed for cystoscopically directed needle biopsies of the pancreas. Of these 18 recipients, at 6 weeks after transplantation, 6 had had no rejection episodes or cytomegalovirus disease (control group), an acute allograft rejection had developed in 7, CMV disease developed in 4, and both rejection and CMV disease developed in 1 by 12 days after transplantation. SIL-2R level increased in all patients during immunosuppressive induction therapy (preoperative mean +/- SE, 1637 +/- 284 U/mL; maximum, 4367 +/- 687 U/mL). After induction therapy, the mean was 2768 +/- 432 U/mL. In all 6 recipients in the control group, SIL-2R level continued to decrease. However, SIL-2R level was significantly higher compared with controls, in those who had CMV disease (levels were increased at a mean of 7 days before diagnosis of CMV disease) and in those who had acute rejection episodes (levels were increased a mean of 7 days before the clinical diagnosis of rejection). Factors that did not cause an increase in SIL-2R level included acute pancreatitis, wound infection, operative procedures, and CsA nephrotoxicity. SIL-2R level can be useful for monitoring pancreaticoduodenal allograft recipients. Increases predict impending rejection or CMV disease, prior to the onset of organ dysfunction. When SIL-2R level increases, we recommend cultures of blood and urine to exclude CMV and pancreaticoduodenal allograft biopsy to confirm early rejection prior to the initiation of potentially dangerous antirejection therapy.     

Pancreaticoduodenectomy: a rare procedure for the management of complex pancreaticoduodenal injuries

BACKGROUND: Pancreaticoduodenectomy (Whipple's procedure) is a formidable procedure when undertaken for severe pancreaticoduodenal injury. The purposes of this study were to review our experience with this procedure for trauma; to classify injury grades for both pancreatic and duodenal injuries in patients undergoing pancreaticoduodenectomy according to the American Association for the Surgery of Trauma-Organ Injury Scale for pancreatic and duodenal injury; and to validate existing indications for performance of this procedure. STUDY DESIGN: We performed a retrospective 126-month study (May 1992 to December 2002) of all patients admitted with proven complex pancreaticoduodenal injuries requiring pancreaticoduodenectomy. RESULTS: Eighteen patients were included; mean age was 32 +/- 12 years (SD), mean Revised Trauma Score was 6.84 +/- 2.13 (SD), and mean Injury Severity Score was 27 +/- 8 (SD). There were 17 penetrating injuries (94%) and 1 blunt injury (6%). One of 18 patients had an emergency department thoracotomy and died (100% mortality); 5 of the remaining 17 patients required operating room thoracotomies, and only 1 survived (80% mortality). There was 1 AAST-OIS pancreas grade IV injury, and there were 17 pancreas grade V injuries and 18 AAST-OIS duodenum grade V injuries. Indications for pancreaticoduodenectomy were: massive uncontrollable retropancreatic hemorrhage, 13 patients (72%); massive unreconstructable injury to the head of the pancreas/main pancreatic duct and intrapancreatic portion/distal common bile duct, 18 patients (100%); and massive unreconstructable injury, 18 patients (100%). Mean estimated blood loss was 6,888 +/- 7,866 mL, and overall survival was 67% (12 of 18 patients). CONCLUSIONS: Complex pancreaticoduodenal injuries requiring pancreaticoduodenectomy (Whipple's procedure) are uncommon but highly lethal; virtually all are classified as AAST-OIS grade V for both pancreas and duodenum. Current indications for performance of pancreaticoduodenectomy are valid and should be strictly applied during procedure selection.