卡巴胆碱对参与中枢炎症反应的小胶质细胞增殖的影响

目的:观察卡巴胆碱是否对小胶质细胞增殖产生影响。方法:培养的小胶质细胞系,加入不同浓度的卡巴胆碱或卡巴胆碱与粒细胞巨噬细胞集落刺激因子(Granulocyte-MacrophageColony-StimulatingFactor,GM-CSF),用MTT方法检测细胞活性,观察对小胶质细胞数量的影响。结果:我们在培养的小胶质细胞系发现,卡巴胆碱显著减少小胶质细胞的数量,并能有效抑制粒细胞巨噬细胞集落刺激因子诱导的小胶质细胞数量增多,并存在剂量依赖效应,10μM浓度效果最为显著。结论:卡巴胆碱可抑制小胶质细胞炎性反应。     

Nurr-1对小胶质细胞微环境的影响

目的:探讨Nurr-1基因对小胶质细胞活化状态及其微环境的影响。方法:分离培养新生SD大鼠小胶质细胞,纯化、鉴定并分别用脂多糖(LPS)刺激活化和过表达Nurr1基因。实验随机分为小胶质细胞组、Nurr1过表达组、LPS处理组、Nurr1过表达+LPS处理组。ELISA分析过表达Nurr1基因对不同状态小胶质细胞分泌TNF-α、IL-1等炎症相关因子和BDNF、GDNF和PDNF等神经营养因子的影响。结果:(1)小胶质细胞混合培养、纯化、CD11b/c免疫细胞化学鉴定为阳性,纯度在95%;(2)Nurr1基因过表达小胶质细胞转染阳性率90%;(3)ELISA法检测结果显示:过表达Nurr1基因的小胶质细胞显著降低了TNF-α、IL-1的分泌,并促使了BDNF、GDNF和PDNF等神经营养因子的分泌。结论:Nurr1基因可抑制小胶质细胞的活化和减少炎症相关因子的产生,同时可促进GDNF、BDNF、PDNF等与DA能神经元存活和成熟等相关的神经营养因子的分泌。     

脊髓损伤后运动功能恢复中粒细胞集落刺激因子的作用

背景：近期有文献报道了粒细胞集落刺激因子在脑梗死模型及急性脊髓损伤模型中的神经保护作用,但应用的动物模型均非击打模型,与人体脊髓损伤的病理生理过程存在一定差距。 目的：观察粒细胞集落刺激因子对Allen’s脊髓损伤大鼠模型运动功能恢复的影响。 方法：使用改良Allen’s法制作T10节段Wistar大鼠脊髓损伤撞击模型,随机分为2组,粒细胞集落刺激因子组应用粒细胞集落刺激因子治疗,vehicle组注射等剂量PBS。于造模后第1,7,14,21,28,35天分别应用BBB运动功能评分法和Rivlin斜板实验评估大鼠运动功能,造模后第7,14,21,28,35天使用网格步行实验评估大鼠四肢肌力。 结果与结论：所有大鼠造模后均出现后肢瘫痪症状。造模后第7,14,21,28,35天粒细胞集落刺激因子组BBB运动功能评分及Rivlin斜板实验评分高于vehicle组(P < 0.05-0.01),造模后第14,21,28,35天粒细胞集落刺激因子组网格行走实验错误数低于vehicle组(P < 0.05-0.01),结果显示,粒细胞集落刺激因子治疗后大鼠运动功能及四肢肌力恢复情况均优于vehicle组。提示粒细胞集落刺激因子疗法对脊髓损伤起到了积极的治疗效果。     

黄芪多糖抑制小鼠EAE 及调控BV-2 神经小胶质细胞活化的实验研究

目的:研究黄芪多糖(APS)对实验性自身免疫性脑脊髓膜炎(EAE)的治疗作用以及对参与EAE 发病机制的神经小胶质细胞活化的调控作用及其可能的作用机制。方法:动物实验:MOG35-55 诱导C57BL/6 小鼠建立EAE 模型,予APS 给药干预,通过5 级临床症状评分观察APS 对小鼠EAE 的治疗作用。细胞实验:MTT 法检测脂多糖(LPS)对于BV-2 神经小胶质细胞的增殖抑制作用,筛选合适的LPS 刺激浓度活化神经小胶质细胞,构建BV-2 神经小胶质细胞活化的模型;倒置显微镜观察BV-2 神经小胶质细胞形态学的改变;ELISA 法检测BV-2 神经小胶质细胞IFN-酌、TNF-α的分泌水平变化;观察不同浓度的APS 对BV-2 神经小胶质细胞活化的调控作用;APS 干预后,Western blot、Real-time PCR 方法分别检测BV-2 神经小胶质细胞PD-L1 蛋白和mRNA 表达水平的变化。结果:APS 能够有效治疗小鼠EAE 的临床症状,成功建立了体外BV-2 神经小胶质细胞活化模型,一定浓度的APS 能够抑制BV-2 神经小胶质细胞的活化,提高活化的BV-2 细胞的生存活性,降低IFN-酌、TNF-α的分泌水平,促进活化的BV-2 神经小胶质细胞PD-L1 基因及蛋白表达上调。结论:APS 对小鼠EAE 具有明显的治疗作用,其发挥作用的机制可能是APS 能够有效抑制神经小胶质细胞的活化,降低炎性细胞因子IFN-酌、TNF-α的分泌,对神经小胶质细胞有抗炎保护作用,PD-1/ PD-L1 通路可能是APS 发挥抗炎作用的重要途径。     

脂多糖诱导小胶质细胞依赖的早产鼠脑白质损伤机制研究

目的研究中枢神经系统小胶质细胞（MG）正常发育尤其是少突胶质细胞前体细胞（OPCs）最易受损阶段的发育,探讨宫内感染早产鼠MG依赖的OPCs损伤机制。方法①观察正常C57B/L鼠不同胎龄（孕10、15d）和生后（0、5、10d）MG和OPCs在脑白质的发育分布情况,明确两者在发育和分布上的关联。②建立脂多糖（LPS）宫内感染新生鼠模型（宫内分别接种LPS5、10和20μg·mL-1为感染A-C组）,以PBS溶液接种为对照组。以Tomato lectin作为静息状态MG标志,CD68作为活化MG的特殊抗体,O4＋作为OPCs抗体,抗体浮片法进行免疫组化染色并计数分析。③Western blot法检测各组脑室周围白质组织Toll样受体-4（TLR-4）蛋白表达。④采用ELISA法检测各组MG活化后IL-2、TNF-α和SOD水平变化。结果①MG在孕10d胎鼠Tomato lectin表达低下,孕15d胎鼠表达显著增高,MG主要分布在脑室周围白质区域,灰质皮质几乎不表达。出生后,脑室周围白质区域MG的表达有所下降,灰质皮质的表达逐渐增高。②感染A-C组CD68＋细胞数量均显著增加,与对照组差异有统计学意义（P〈0.01）,但感染C组与B组CD68＋细胞数量差异无统计学意义（P〉0.05）。与对照组比较,感染A-C组均可见O4＋细胞数量显著性下降（P〈0.01）,其中以感染C组下降最为明显。③对照组未检测到TLR-4蛋白表达,感染A-C组均可见LPS剂量依赖的TLR-4蛋白表达增加,与对照组差异有统计学意义（P〈0.05）。④随接种LPS剂量增大,IL-2和TNF-α水平较对照组呈显著增加趋势,SOD水平较对照组呈显著降低趋势。结论新生鼠发育依赖的MG在脑白质受损区域过度表达,表明活化MG起到本底激活效应,是早产儿脑白质损伤的物质基础。     

养心通脉有效部位方与急性心肌梗死大鼠骨髓间充质干细胞的动员及定向归巢

背景:急性梗死心肌修复过程中,寻找可有效提高外周血骨髓间充质干细胞的数量、并动员其定向归巢于损伤心肌的骨髓间充质干细胞动员剂尤为关键。目的:探讨养心通脉有效部位方对急性心肌梗死大鼠骨髓间充质干细胞动员入血及定向归巢于梗死心肌的影响。方法:养心通脉有效部位方主要成分包括人参皂苷、丹参酮ⅡA、总生物碱、人参多糖等,由中南大学药学院依课题组稳定的制作工艺制作提供。SD大鼠70只,取8只大鼠作为正常对照组,剩余62只大鼠建立急性心肌梗死模型。取造模成功的32只大鼠,随机分为养心通脉有效部位方组、复方丹参注射液组、重组人粒细胞集落刺激因子组、模型对照组,各组均于造模3h后给与对应药物,连续5d。流式细胞仪检测外周血CD34+细胞数,免疫组化染色检测梗死心肌边缘区CD34+细胞数。结果与结论:与模型对照组比较,重组人粒细胞集落刺激因子组、养心通脉有效部位方组外周血CD34+细胞数均明显增加(P0.01);心肌梗死边缘区胞浆CD34+细胞数均显著增加(P0.01)。与重组人粒细胞集落刺激因子组比较,养心通脉有效部位方组心肌梗死边缘区胞浆CD34+细胞数显著增加(P0.01)。养心通脉有效部位方能促进骨髓干细胞动员入血,并定向归巢于梗死心肌,其作用与重组人粒细胞集落刺激因子大体相当,在归巢CD34+细胞方面甚至强于重组人粒细胞集落刺激因子,是一种良好的骨髓间充质干细胞动员剂。     

骨髓间充质干细胞调节大鼠视神经损伤后小胶质细胞的活化

背景:外伤性视神经损伤是引起视力丧失的重要原因,治疗方法也比较局限,为探求更好的治疗方法,该实验从小胶质细胞方向入手进行探究。在神经病理条件下,激活小胶质细胞能够维持中枢神经系统的稳定,但小胶质细胞过度活化会产生大量的炎症因子,使损伤进行性加重。目的:探讨视神经损伤后小胶质细胞活化情况以及骨髓间充质干细胞对其过度表达的调节作用。方法:选取8周龄SD大鼠18只,将其随机分为移植组、模型组和假手术组,每组6只,其中模型组、移植组选取左眼进行视神经钳夹造模后分离视网膜和视神经,假手术组只分离视网膜和视神经,不进行钳夹,移植组在损伤后立即向左眼玻璃体内注入第3代骨髓间充质干细胞(注入细胞1×108,细胞量为2μL),模型组、假手术组玻璃体内注入等量的PBS,术后15 d全部处死,在灌流固定后取视网膜连带视神经用于苏木精-伊红染色和免疫组织化学检测。结果与结论:模型组视神经及视网膜小胶质细胞活化标记物Ox-42以及炎症因子TNF-α的表达量均高于假手术组(P<0.05),移植组视神经及视网膜中Ox-42和TNF-α表达量降低(P<0.05)并且接近假手术组水平。结果表明,小胶质细胞的过度活化与视神经损伤相关,骨髓间充质干细胞可以抑制小胶质细胞过度活化及炎症因子的释放,从而在一定程度上保护视网膜和视神经免受损伤。     

雷公藤内酯醇(T10)通过抑制脊髓内胶质细胞的激活改善大鼠CFA诱导的炎性痛的机制研究

目的:观察腹腔注射雷公藤内酯醇(Triptolide,T10)对完全弗氏佐剂(complete Freund’s adjuvant,CFA)诱导的大鼠慢性炎性痛行为的改善作用并探讨其机制。方法:SD大鼠随机分为四组,即Saline+Veh组、Saline+T10组、CFA+Veh组和CFA+T10组。后两组大鼠于右侧足底注射CFA制备大鼠慢性炎性痛模型,前两组则在相同部位注射生理盐水。第二组和第四组大鼠分别于造模前1 h给予T10腹腔注射,随后每12 h给予腹腔注射药物1次,持续用药7 d;第一组和第三组则以相同方式给予100 ml/kg的生理盐水作为对照。采用辐射热法和机械刺激法连续观察给药后大鼠的痛行为;应用免疫组织化学染色和Western Blot方法观察连续给予T10 3d和7 d后大鼠腰膨大平面脊髓背角内小胶质细胞和星形胶质细胞的活化程度;应用实时定量PCR(RT-PCR)方法观察连续给药7 d后大鼠腰5背根神经节内炎性因子,如白细胞介素-6(interleukin-6,IL-6)、白细胞介素-1β(interleukin-1 beta,IL-1β)和肿瘤坏死因子-α(tumour necrosis factor-α,TNF-α)的表达变化。结果:(1)与CFA+Veh组相比,CFA+T10组大鼠机械缩足阈值及辐射热痛潜伏期显著下降(P0.05),并持续到造模成功后7 d,表明腹腔注射T10可以明显改善CFA诱导的大鼠机械痛敏和辐射热痛敏。(2)免疫组织化学染色和Western Blot结果显示:造模后3 d和7 d后CFA+Veh组大鼠脊髓背角出现大量CFA诱导活化的小胶质细胞和星形胶质细胞;小胶质细胞标记物IBa-1和星形胶质细胞标记物GFAP的表达量分别在CFA造模后3 d和7 d显著增高(P0.05),而给予T10 3 d和7 d后炎性痛大鼠腰膨大平面IBa-1和GFAP的活化程度均显著减轻(P0.05)。(3)RT-PCR结果显示:与Saline+Veh组相比,CFA造模7 d后腰5背根神经节内炎性因子IL-1β、IL-6 mRNA和TNF-αmRNA的表达显著增高(P0.05),腹腔注射T10 7 d后上述炎性因子的表达则显著降低(P0.05)。结论:腹腔注射T10可以显著改善CFA诱导的大鼠慢性炎性痛,其机制可能与抑制脊髓背角小胶质细胞和星形胶质细胞的活化以及炎性因子IL-1β、IL-6和TNF-α的合成有关。     

小胶质细胞对阿兹海默病作用的研究现状

正中枢神经系统(central nervous system,CNS)的胶质细胞包括星形胶质细胞(astrocytes),少突胶质细胞(oligodendrocytes)和小胶质细胞(microglia)。小胶质细胞减轻神经损伤和促进组织修复是通过吞噬作用清除细胞碎片,释放神经生长和抗炎因子而产生的[1-3]。小胶质细胞激活(活化)并高度激活时具有分泌高水平促炎因子和细胞毒性物质,引起神经元功能丧失或细胞死亡。神经退行性疾病(neurodegenerative     

表没食子儿茶素没食子酸酯减轻LPS诱导新生大鼠原代神经胶质细胞损伤

目的观察表没食子儿茶素没食子酸酯(EGCG)对细菌脂多糖(LPS)所致大鼠神经胶质细胞炎症的保护作用。方法取新生乳鼠原代神经胶质细胞培养,用LPS激活小胶质细胞引起炎性反应。高效液相色谱检测细胞兴奋性/抑制氨基酸含量,用酶联免疫吸附实验(ELISA)和蛋白免疫印记试验(Western blot)检测炎性因子蛋白含量。结果 LPS激活神经小胶质细胞,大幅上调TNF-α、IL-1β及IL-8炎性因子和升高i NOS蛋白质水平(P0.05),EGCG明显抑制这些炎性因子的过度产生(P0.05),同时还显著降低Glu和升高γ-GABA的浓度(P0.05)。结论EGCG能减弱LPS引起的体外培养神经胶质细胞的炎性反应。     

Periventricular white matter damage in the hypoxic neonatal brain: Role of microglial cells

Periventricular white matter damage (PWMD) also known as periventricular white matter injury, is one of the major causes of neurological impairment in premature newborns. The etiology of white matter injury is multifaceted with hypoxia-ischemia being an important underlying factor. The developing oligodendrocytes are susceptible to damage resulting in myelination deficits. Excess release of glutamate, free radical production, release of cytokines and iron accumulation are factors thought to mediate damage to the developing white matter. Recent studies have also suggested a role for vascular endothelial growth factor and nitric oxide in the pathogenesis of PWMD. Although the role of microglial cells in the development of PWMD is still debatable, our recent investigations have shed some light on their involvement in the pathogenesis of PWMD. Challenges for the future include in-depth investigation of crosstalk between microglia and immature oligodendrocytes as well as other glial cells and vascular endothelial cells.     

Amoeboid microglia in the periventricular white matter induce oligodendrocyte damage through expression of proinflammatory cytokines via MAP kinase signaling pathway in hypoxic neonatal rats

Hypoxic injury in the perinatal period results in periventricular white matter (PWM) lesions with axonal damage and oligodendroglial loss. It also alters macrophage function by perpetuating expression of inflammatory mediators. Relevant to this is the preponderance of amoeboid microglial cells (AMC) characterized as active macrophages in the developing PWM. This study aimed to determine if AMC produce proinflammatory cytokines that may be linked to the oligodendroglial loss observed in hypoxic PWM damage (PWMD). Wistar rats (1 day old) were subjected to hypoxia, following which upregulated expression of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), interleukin-1beta (IL-1beta), TNF receptor 1 (TNF-R(1)) and IL-1 receptor 1 (IL-1R(1)) was observed. This was coupled with apoptosis and expression of TNF-R(1) and IL-1R(1) in oligodendrocytes. Primary cultured microglial cells subjected to hypoxia (3% oxygen, 5% CO(2) and 92% nitrogen) showed enhanced expression of TNF-alpha and IL-1beta. Furthermore, mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase signaling pathway was involved in the expression of TNF-alpha and IL-1beta in microglia subjected to hypoxia. Our results suggest that following a hypoxic insult, microglial cells in the neonatal rats produce inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-alpha and IL-1beta via MAP kinase signaling pathway. These cytokines are detrimental to oligodendrocytes resulting in PWM lesion.     

Role of interleukin-6 in lipopolysaccharide-induced brain injury and behavioral dysfunction in neonatal rats

There are increasing data in support of the hypothesis that inflammatory cytokines are involved in neonatal white matter damage. Despite extensive study of the proinflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor-alpha and interleukin-1beta, the role of interleukin-6 in the development of white matter damage is largely unknown. In the present study, the role(s) of interleukin-6 in mediating lipopolysaccharide-induced brain injury and behavioral changes was investigated by the intracerebral injection of lipopolysaccharide with interleukin-6 neutralizing antibody in the 5-day-old rat brain. Brain injury was examined in brain sections at postnatal day 8 and postnatal day 21. Behavioral tests including righting reflex, wire hanging maneuver, cliff avoidance, locomotor activity, gait analysis, responses in the elevated plus-maze and passive avoidance were performed from postnatal day 3 to postnatal day 21. Changes in astroglia, microglia and oligodendrocytes were studied using immunohistochemistry in the postnatal day 21 rat brain. Our results show that interleukin-6 antibody attenuated lipopolysaccharide-induced brain lateral ventricle dilation and improved neurobehavioral performance. Interleukin-6 antibody also suppressed lipopolysaccharide-induced astrogliosis and microglial activation, and increased the number of oligodendrocytes in white matter. However, no changes of tumor necrosis factor-alpha and interleukin-1beta were detected. In contrast, no histopathological changes and glial activation were observed in rats injected with only interleukin-6. The present study indicates that the contribution to brain injury by interleukin-6 depends on its interaction with other lipopolysaccharide-induced agents and not on interleukin-6 alone.     

高迁移率族蛋白B1的致炎细胞因子作用研究进展

目前全身性炎症反应仍然是危重病人死亡的主要原因。近年来发现高迁移率族蛋白B1(HMGB1)这一传统DNA结合蛋白是强大的致炎细胞因子。HMGB1可由单核/巨噬细胞等固有免疫细胞在致炎细胞因子刺激下主动分泌,也可由坏死细胞被动释放。该分子刺激炎症细胞活化并向炎症部位聚集,促进炎症细胞因子分泌造成组织损伤。针对HMGB1的靶向治疗为临床救治感染危重病人拓展了治疗时机,因而具有很大的实际意义。HMGB1的致炎细胞因子作用是炎症损伤的研究热点之一。     

Cytokine-induced activation of glial cells in the mouse brain is enhanced at an advanced age

Numerous neurological diseases which include neuroinflammatory components exhibit an age-related prevalence. The aging process is characterized by an increase of inflammatory mediators both systemically and in the brain, which may prime glial cells. However, little information is available on age-related changes in the glial response of the healthy aging brain to an inflammatory challenge. This problem was here examined using a mixture of the proinflammatory cytokines interferon-gamma and tumor necrosis factor-alpha, which was injected intracerebroventricularly in young (2-3.5 months), middle-aged (10-11 months) and aged (18-21 months) mice. Vehicle (phosphate-buffered saline) was used as control. After a survival of 1 or 2 days (all age groups) or 4 days (young and middle-aged animals), immunohistochemically labeled astrocytes and microglia were investigated both qualitatively and quantitatively. In all age groups, astrocytes were markedly activated in periventricular as well as in deeper brain regions 2 days following cytokine treatment, whereas microglia activation was already evident at 24 h. Interestingly, cytokine-induced activation of both astrocytes and microglia was significantly more marked in the brain of aged animals, in which it included numerous ameboid microglia, than of younger age groups. Moderate astrocytic activation was also seen in the hippocampal CA1 field of vehicle-treated aged mice. FluoroJade B histochemistry and the terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated UTP nick-end labeling technique, performed at 2 days after cytokine administration, did not reveal ongoing cell death phenomena in young or aged animals. This indicated that glial cell changes were not secondary to neuronal death. Altogether, the findings demonstrate for the first time enhanced activation of glial cells in the old brain, compared with young and middle-aged subjects, in response to cytokine exposure. Interestingly, the results also suggest that such enhancement does not develop gradually since youth, but appears characterized by relatively late onset.     

Intrathecal release of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines during stroke

A growing body of evidence points out the potential role of inflammatory mechanisms in the pathophysiology of ischaemic brain damage. We have recently demonstrated that stroke patients display an intrathecal production of proinflammatory cytokines, such as IL-1β and IL-6 already within the first 24 h after the beginning of symptoms (Tarkowski et al., 1995). The aim of the present study was to investigate patterns of local inflammatory responses as a consequence of acute stroke. Thirty stroke patients were studied prospectively on days 0–3, 7–9, 21–26 and after day 90 with clinical evaluations, radiological assessments and analysis of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) cytokine levels. In addition, 15 healthy control CSF samples were used. Significantly increased CSF levels of IL-8, granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) and IL-10 were observed early during the stroke with a peak on day 2 for the proinflammatory cytokines IL-8 and GM-CSF, and on day 3 for the immunoregulatory cytokine IL-10. Patients with a brain infarct predominantly located in the white matter showed significantly higher levels of IL-8 in CSF than patients with an infarct mainly located in the grey matter. Also, high levels of intrathecal tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) were associated with the presence of white matter disease. Our study demonstrates an intrathecal production of proinflammatory and immunoregulatory cytokines in patients with stroke, supporting the notion of localized immune response to the acute brain lesion. A better understanding of the inflammatory response in stroke may lead to new treatment strategies.     

流感病毒诱导小鼠胶质细胞的细胞因子级联反应

目的:探讨流感病毒感染星形胶质细胞后释放的细胞因子是否会诱导正常胶质细胞趋化因子及促炎细胞因子转录水平的变化,从而产生细胞因子级联效应。方法:从新生小鼠大脑皮质分离培养神经胶质细胞,并进一步纯化星形胶质细胞,经纯度鉴定后,用感染复数为2的流感病毒H1N1和H3N2进行体外感染星形胶质细胞,分别于6小时和24小时收获上清,采用超滤分子截留的方法,去除流感病毒颗粒。用不同时间点的条件上清,分别刺激星形胶质细胞和小胶质细胞,24小时后提取RNA并进行反转录,利用Real-Time PCR检测促炎因子TNF-α、IL-1β、IL-6,趋化因子IP-10、MCP-1、MIP-1转录水平的变化。结果:不同时间点的条件上清皆可诱导正常胶质细胞的促炎症因子TNF-α、IL-1β、IL-6和趋化因子IP-10、MCP-1、MIP-1的转录水平发生不同程度的上调,产生细胞因子级联效应。结论:流感病毒H1N1和H3N2感染星形胶质细胞后所引起的细胞因子风暴,可诱导正常胶质细胞的细胞因子转录水平显著上调,引发细胞因子级联反应,其可能与流感病毒感染中枢神经系统所引发的细胞因子风暴及免疫病理损伤存在一定关系。     

An imbalance in mucosal cytokine profile causes transient intestinal inflammation following an animal's first exposure to faecal bacteria and antigens

Intestinal microflora play a critical role in the initiation and perpetuation of chronic inflammatory bowel diseases. In genetically susceptible hosts, bacterial colonization results in rapid‐onset chronic intestinal inflammation. Nevertheless, the intestinal and systemic immune response to faecal bacteria and antigen exposure into a sterile intestinal lumen of a post‐weaned animal with a mature immune system are not understood clearly. This study examined the effects of faecal bacteria and antigen exposure on the intestinal mucosal and systemic immune system in healthy axenic mice. Axenic wild‐type mice were inoculated orally with a crude faecal slurry solution derived from conventionally raised mice and were analysed prior to and then at days 3, 7, 14 and 28 post‐treatment. Ingestion of faecal slurry resulted in a transient, early onset of proinflammatory interferon (IFN)‐γ, tumour necrosis factor (TNF)‐α and interleukin (IL)‐17 response that was maximal at day 3. In contrast, the transient release of the anti‐inflammatory cytokines IL‐10 and IL‐4 occurred later and was maximal at day 7. Both responses subsided by day 14. This early cytokine imbalance was associated with a brief rise in colonic and caecal histopathological injury score at day 7. The bacterial antigen‐specific systemic response was found to follow the intestinal immune response with a maximal release of both pro‐ and anti‐inflammatory cytokines at day 7. Thus, first exposure of healthy axenic wild‐type mice to normal faecal flora and antigens results in an early proinflammatory cytokine response and transient colonic inflammation that then resolves in conjunction with a subsequent anti‐inflammatory cytokine profile.     

Microglia‐Derived Macrophage Colony Stimulating Factor Promotes Generation of Proinflammatory Cytokines by Astrocytes in the Periventricular White Matter in the Hypoxic Neonatal Brain

Inflammation in the periventricular white matter (PWM) of hypoxic neonatal brain causes myelination disturbances. In this connection, macrophage colony‐stimulating factor (M‐CSF) has been reported to regulate release of proinflammatory cytokines that may be linked to PWM damage. We sought to determine if M‐CSF derived from amoeboid microglial cells (AMC) would promote proinflammatory cytokine production by astrocytes in the PWM following hypoxic exposure, and, if so, whether it is associated with axon degeneration and myelination disturbances. In 1‐day hypoxic rats, expression of M‐CSF was upregulated in AMC. This was coupled with increased expression of CSF‐1 receptor, tumor necrosis factor‐α (TNF‐α) and interleukin‐1β (IL‐1β) in astrocytes, and TNF‐receptor 1 and IL‐receptor 1 on the axons. Neurofilament‐200 immunopositive axons and myelin basic protein immunopositive processes appeared to undergo disruption in 14‐days hypoxic rats. By electron microscopy, some axons showed degenerative changes affecting the microtubules and myelin sheath. Primary cultured microglial cells subjected to hypoxia showed enhanced release of M‐CSF. Remarkably, primary cultured astrocytes treated with conditioned‐medium derived from hypoxic microglia or M‐CSF exhibited increased production of TNF‐α and IL‐1β. Our results suggest that AMC‐derived M‐CSF promotes astrocytes to generate proinflammatory cytokines, which may be involved in axonal damage following a hypoxic insult.