超声内镜和CT对食管癌术前分期的诊断价值

目的探讨超声内镜（EUS）和CT检查对食管癌术前分期的诊断价值。方法于2002年7月至2004年1月对51例食管癌手术患者行术前EUS和CT及术后病理检查，将EUS和CT分期结果和手术病理分期结果进行对照。结果（1）EUS检查T、N分期的准确率分别为82．4％（42／51）和88.0％（45／51）；CT检查T、N分期的准确率分别为52.9％（27／51）和51．0％（26／51）；EUS与CT联合检查T、N分期的准确率分别为86.3％（44／51）和90．2％（46／51）。（2）3种检查方式分期结果与病理分期结果的一致性统计结果：EUS检查T、N分期的Kappa分别为0．700（P〈0．001）和0．763（P〈0.001）；CT分别为0．275（P=0．002）和0．006（P=0.964）；EUS加CT则分别为0．769（P〈0.001）和0．801（P〈0.001）。（3）各组间差异的统计结果：EUS与CT比较，PT=0．001（X^2=10.079），PN〈0.001（X^2=16．730）；EUS加CT与EUS比较，PT=0.586（X^2=0．297），PN=0．750（X^2=0.102）。结论EUS对食管癌术前T、N分期诊断准确率较高，诊断价值优于CT；EUS与CT联合应用未能显著提高食管癌T、N分期的诊断准确率。     

腔内超声与螺旋CT对直肠癌术前分期的对比研究

目的比较腔内超声（EUS）和螺旋CT（SCT）对直肠癌术前分期的诊断价值。方法对68例直肠癌患者术前行EUS和SCT检查，将检查结果与手术及病理结果对比；同时比较EUS和SCT对诊断直肠肿瘤浸润深度、区域淋巴结转移的准确性。结果判断T分期，EUS准确率为86．8％（59／68），SCT准确率为70．6％（48／68），两者比较差异有统计学意义（P〈0．05）。评价N分期，EUS的准确率为67．6％（46／68），SCT的准确率为63．2％（43／68），两者比较差异无统计学意义（P〉0．05）。结论EUS对判断直肠肿瘤浸润深度优于SCT，但两者对淋巴结转移的判断均存在一定的局限性。     

经直肠超声对局部进展期直肠癌新辅助放化疗后再分期的诊断价值

目的分析经直肠超声（TRUS）检查对局部进展期直肠癌新辅助放化疗（Neo．CRT）后再分期的诊断价值。方法回顾性分析149例经Neo．CRT加根治性手术的局部进展期直肠癌患者（T3-T4期或N＋）的临床资料,比较Neo．CRT后TRUS分期与术后病理分期的吻合度。结果Neo—CRT后TRUS对肿瘤T分期的诊断准确率为30．9％,其中对T0、T1、T2、T3和T4各期诊断敏感性分别为16．3％、0、12．5％、42．6％和75．0％,T分期高估者90例（60．4％）。Neo—CRT后TRUS对N分期诊断准确率81．2％,对N。和N＋诊断敏感性分别为92．5％和31．0％。41例（27．5％）术后病理提示病理完全缓解（pCR）,TRUS判断pCR的敏感性17．1％,特异性99．1％,阳性预测值87．5％,阴性预测值75．9％。结论Neo．CRT后TRUS对T分期的诊断准确性较低,但对T4和N。分期的诊断敏感性较高。尽管TRUS对pCR的判断敏感性较低,但特异性和阳性预测值较高,故TRUS用于pCR筛选有一定价值。     

64层CT三期动态增强扫描对胃癌术前TNM分期的判断价值

目的探讨64层螺旋CT三二期动态增强扫描对胃癌进行术前TNM分期的临床价值．方法回顾性分析2009年5月至2011年5月赣南医学院第一附属医院收治的120例胃癌患者的术前64层螺旋CT三期动态增强扫描资料和术后病理资料,由两名高年资影像科医生采用双盲法进行术前影像学分期。结果术前64层螺旋CT增强扫描对胃癌T分期判断的总体准确率为79．2％（95／120）,其中对T1、T2、T3和T4期判断的准确率分别为66．7％（10／15）、66．7％（14／21）、84．0％（42／50）和85．3％（29／34）。对于单层胃壁结构和多层胃壁结构,CT增强扫描对T分期的准确率分别为59．4％（19／32）和81．8％（72／88）．差异有统计学意义（P〈0．05）。CT增强扫描对N分期判断的总体准确率为73．9％（85／115）,其中对N0N1和N2期判断的准确率分别为75．5％（37／49）、70．3％f26／37）和75．9％（22／29）：对M分期判断的准确率为89．2％（107／120）。结论64层螺旋CTi期动态增强扫描可早期动态观察肿瘤累及侵犯情况、淋巴转移及远处转移的情况．有望成为胃癌术前分期有重要意义的检佥项目之一。     

核磁共振与腔内超声对直肠癌术前局部分期的价值比较

目的 比较核磁共振(MRI)和腔内超声(EUS)对直肠癌术前分期的价值.方法 分别应用MRI和EUS检查对72例和55例直肠癌患者行术前分期,与手术及病理结果对比,比较MRI和EUS对直肠肿瘤浸润深度、区域淋巴结转移判断的准确性.结果 MRI判断T分期总的准确率为76.4％ (55/72),MRI评价N分期的准确率为63.9％ (46/72),EUS判断T分期总的准确率为81.8％(45/55),评价N分期的准确率为65.5％ (36/55).结论 MRI与EUS判断T分期的准确性差异无统计学意义,EUS判断早中期直肠肿瘤浸润层次的准确率高于MRI,两者判断N分期的准确率均较低.     

腔内水囊磁共振成像对直肠癌术前分期的诊断

目的评估腔内水囊磁共振成像（MRI）预测直肠癌术前分期的准确程度。方法回顾性分析19例直肠癌患者的临床资料，对照术前MRI和术后病理结果．评估MRI能否准确预测直肠癌T和系膜淋巴结转移（N）分期。结果MRI正确T分期15例（78．9％），错误4例，其中2例T1-2期报告为T3期，2例T3期报告为T1-2期；T1-2期的准确率为80％（8／10），B期的准确率为7／9。MRI正确N分期11例（57．9％），错误分期8例；其中高估2例，低估6例，灵敏度为3／9，特异度为80．0％（8／10）。结论术前腔内水囊MRI不能对直肠癌系膜淋巴结转移做出准确预测，可以对T分期进行一般预测。     

直肠内充气CT对直肠癌诊断及临床分期的价值

为探讨直肠内充气CT对直肠癌诊断和临床分期的价值,回顾分析104例经手术病理证实的直肠癌患者的直肠内充气CT表现,评价直肠内充气CT对直肠癌诊断和临床分期的价值。结果显示,直肠内充气CT患者直肠及乙状结肠充分扩张,包绕直肠周围的脂肪密度结构,与相对较高密度的肠壁及极低密度的肠腔对比清晰。直肠内充气CT对直肠癌TNM分期总的准确率为84．6％（88／104）,T分期的准确率为90．4％（94／104）,N分期的准确率为86．5％（90／104）,M分期的准确率为98．1％（102／104）。结果表明,直肠内充气CT能够清晰地显示肿瘤的大小、形态、浸润深度、淋巴结转移情况、远处转移情况及其与周围器官的关系,并能获得清晰的直肠系膜影像学特征。直肠内充气CT与TNM病理分期有较高的一致性,是直肠癌术前诊断及判断临床分期的重要方法。     

经肛门内镜微创手术治疗直肠上皮内瘤变和早期直肠癌

目的探讨经肛门内镜微创手术（TEM）治疗直肠上皮内瘤变（IN）和早期直肠癌的临床价值。方法选择15例直肠肿瘤患者采用TEM行局部切除术。根据活检病理结合直肠腔内超声检查（EUS）术前诊断低级别IN8例，高级别IN4例，早期直肠癌3例。肿瘤距肛缘的距离4—15（平均7．2）cm，肿瘤直径1—4（平均1．8）cm，肿瘤占据肠腔周径比例10％～40％（平均20％）。结果15例直肠肿瘤均获完整切除（黏膜下切除5例，全层切除10例），各切缘均阴性。手术时间为40．90（平均57）min；术中出血量为10-60（平均35）ml。术后住院时间为2-9（平均4．5）d。术后病理确诊：直肠低级别IN5例，高级别IN6例，早期黏膜下浸润癌（pT1期）和进展期癌（pT2期）各2例。术前EUS评估肿瘤浸润肠壁深度的准确率为86．7％（13／15）。15例术后随访2．10（平均6）个月，肿瘤无局部复发。结论TEM微创、显露良好、切除精确、能获取高质量的肿瘤标本用于准确的病理分期，是治疗直肠IN和早期直肠癌的理想术式。术前EUS检查对TEM病例的选择十分重要。     

18F-FDGPET／CT与多层螺旋CT在进展期胃癌术前TNM分期的对比研究

目的应用18F-FDGPET／CT（PET／CT）与多层螺旋cT对进展期胃癌术前TNM分期进行对比研究,以期更客观地评估术前分期,指导治疗。方法对术前行PET／CT检查的39例及MSCT检查的40例进展期胃癌,分别进行术前TNM分期,将检测结果与术中所见及病理进行对照。结果PET／CT对原发灶、区域淋巴结、N3转移淋巴结的准确率分别为92．3％、66．7％、100．0％;而MSCT诊断的准确率分别为82．0％、50．0％、62．5％。结论（1）PET／CT和多层螺旋CT对原发灶、区域淋巴结转移的准确率都较高,差异无统计学意义,由于多层螺旋cT临床应用广泛且费用远低于PET／CT,是首选的检测手段;（2）PET／CT对N3转移淋巴结、远处转移灶检测的准确率明显高于多层螺旋cT,为临床提供更为全面客观的术前分期,指导治疗;（3）由于PET／CT也存在一定假阴性,结合腹腔镜检可减少或避免不必要的剖腹术。     

超声内镜和CT检查对判断食管癌根治性切除的临床价值

目的探讨超声内镜（EUS）和CT对判断食管癌能否根治性切除的临床价值。方法回顾性分析经手术治疗的746例食管癌患者的临床资料．按术前所行检查分为CT组（480例）、EUS组（151例）和EUS加CT组（115例）,采用双盲法,对EUS和CT影像进行回顾性阅片,并将各组结果和手术病理结果进行对照研究。结果CT组、EUS组和EUS加CT组患者的手术根治性切除率分别为91．0％、93．4％和93．9％：3组间差异无统计学意义（X2=1．551,P=0．484）。CT组、EUS组和EUS加CT组术前判断手术根治切除率分别为81．7％、94．7％和96．5％（Xz=15．131,P=0．000;x2=15．662,P=0．000：X2=0．502．P=0．346）;诊断主动脉受侵率分别为91．3％、98．7％和98．3％（X2=9．764,P=0．000;x2=6．659,P=0．004;x2=0．076,P=0．581）;诊断气管支气管受侵率分别为91.3％、96．0％和98．3％（X2=3．729,P=0．034;X2=6．659,P=0．004;X2=1．117,P=0．248）。结论EUS诊断食管癌根治切除和主动脉受侵的临床价值高于CT：EUS和CT诊断气管支气管受侵的价值均较低：与单独应用EUS相比．CT和EUS的联合应用未能显著提高诊断食管癌的根治切除率。     

Endoscopic ultrasound for preoperative staging of esophageal carcinoma

Background Endoscopic ultrasound (EUS) is potentially the best method for pretreatment staging of esophageal carcinoma once distant metastases have been excluded by other methods. However, its apparent accuracy might be influenced by the use of neoadjuvant therapy. To determine the accuracy of EUS in patients undergoing esophageal resection, the authors reviewed their experience with EUS. Methods A total of 73 patients with esophageal carcinoma who underwent an esophagectomy between April 2000 and February 2005 were examined using preoperative EUS and computed tomography (CT). Of these patients, 39 also underwent preoperative neoadjuvant chemoradiotherapy. Both EUS and CT scan were used to determine the depth of tumor penetration (T-stage) and the presence of lymph node metastases (N-stage). These results then were compared with staging determined after pathologic examination of the resected surgical specimen. Results For patients not undergoing neoadjuvant therapy, T-stage was accurately determined by EUS in 79%, N-stage in 74%, and tumor node metastasis (TNM) classification in 65% of the cases. However, when patients who had undergone neoadjuvant chemoradiotherapy were included, the overall accuracy of EUS was 64% for T-stage, 63% for N-stage, and 53% for TNM classification. For the patients who underwent neoadjuvant therapy, EUS indicated a more advanced T-stage in 49%, N-stage in 38%, and TNM classification in 51% of the cases, as compared with pathology. The overall accuracy of EUS for T- and N-stage carcinomas was superior to that of CT scanning. Conclusion For patients who do not undergo preoperative neoadjuvant chemotherapy and radiotherapy, EUS is a more accurate method for determining T- and N-stage resected esophageal carcinomas. Neoadjuvant therapy, however, results in apparent overstaging, predominantly because of tumor downstaging, and this reduces the apparent accuracy of EUS (and CT scanning) in this patient group. Nevertheless, EUS staging before neoadjuvant therapy could be more accurate than pathologic staging after treatment, thereby providing better initial staging information, which can be used to facilitate treatment.     

Endoscopic ultrasound-guided fine needle aspiration for staging patients with carcinoma of the lung

Background. Endoscopic ultrasound (EUS)-guided fine needle aspiration is a safe, cost-effective procedure that can confirm the presence of mediastinal lymph node metastases and mediastinal tumor invasion. We studied the accuracy of EUS in a large population of lung cancer patients with and without enlarged mediastinal lymph nodes on computed tomographic (CT) scan.

Methods. From 1996 to 2000 all patients referred to our institution with lung tumors and no proven distant metastases were considered for EUS and surgical staging. Patients had endoscopic ultrasound with fine needle aspiration of abnormal appearing mediastinal lymph nodes and evaluation for mediastinal invasion of tumor (stage III or IV disease). Patients without confirmed stage III or IV disease had surgical staging.

Results. Two hundred seventy-seven patients met the inclusion criteria, including 121 who had EUS. Endoscopic ultrasound and fine needle aspiration detected stage III or IV disease in 85 of 121 (70%). Among patients with enlarged lymph nodes on CT, 75 of 97 (77%) had stage III or IV disease detected by EUS. Among a small cohort of patients without enlarged mediastinal lymph nodes on CT, 10 of 24 (42%) had stage III or IV disease detected by EUS. For mediastinal lymph nodes only, the sensitivity of endoscopic ultrasound and CT was 87%. The specificity of EUS (100%) was superior to that of CT (32%) (p < 0.001).

Conclusions. Endoscopic ultrasound with fine needle aspiration identified and histologically confirmed mediastinal disease in more than two thirds of patients with carcinoma of the lung who have abnormal mediastinal CT scans. Although mediastinal disease was more likely in patients with an abnormal mediastinal CT, EUS also detected mediastinal disease in more than one third of patients with a normal mediastinal CT and deserves further study. Endoscopic ultrasound should be considered a first line method of presurgical evaluation of patients with tumors of the lung.     

Endoscopic ultrasound in lung cancer patients with a normal mediastinum on computed tomography

BACKGROUND: Computed tomography (CT) is the most common method of staging lung cancer. We have previously shown endoscopic ultrasound guided fine-needle aspiration (EUS-FNA) to be highly accurate in staging patients with nonsmall cell lung cancer (NSCLC) who have enlarged mediastinal lymph nodes on CT scan. In this study we report the accuracy and yield of EUS-FNA in staging patients without enlarged mediastinal lymph nodes by CT. METHODS: Patients with NSCLC and CT scan showing no enlarged mediastinal lymph nodes (> 1 cm for all nodes except > 1.2 cm for subcarinal) in the mediastinum underwent EUS. Fine needle aspiration was performed on at least one lymph node, if present, in the upper mediastinum, aortopulmonary window, subcarinal, and periesophagus regions. Each specimen was evaluated with on-site cytopathology and confirmed with complete cytopathologic examination. RESULTS: Sixty-nine patients without enlarged mediastinal lymph nodes were evaluated. Endoscopic ultrasound detected malignant mediastinal lymph nodes in 14 of 69 patients as well as other advanced (American Joint Committee on Cancer [AJCC] stage III/IV) in 3 others (1 left adrenal, and 2 with mediastinal invasion of tumor) for a total of 17 of 69 (25%, 95% confidence interval: 16% to 34%) patients. Eleven additional patients were found to have advanced disease by bronchoscopy (2), mediastinoscopy (2), and thoracotomy with mediastinal lymph node dissection (7). The sensitivity of EUS for advanced mediastinal disease was 61% (49% to 75%), and the specificity was 98% (95% to 100%). CONCLUSIONS: Endoscopic ultrasound guided fine needle aspiration can detect advanced mediastinal disease and avoid unnecessary surgical exploration in almost one of four patients who have no evidence of mediastinal disease on CT scan. In addition to previously reported results in patients with enlarged lymph nodes on CT, these data suggest that all potentially operable patients with nonmetastatic NSCLC may benefit from EUS staging.     

乳腺癌前哨淋巴结活检

目的 评价前哨淋巴结活检预测腋窝淋巴结有无肿瘤转移的准确性及其临床意义。方法 用^99m锝－硫胶体作为示踪剂,用γ探测仪导向,对70例临床分期为T1－2N0M0的乳腺癌患者进行前哨淋巴结活检,所有的患者均同时行腋窝淋巴结清扫,HE染色阴性的前哨淋巴结再切片,用CK8、CK19、KP－1行免疫组织化学染色。结果 70例患者中成功发现前哨淋巴结的有67例,发现率为95.7%（67／70）。前哨淋巴结的数量为1－5枚,平均每例1.6枚。非前哨淋巴结5－20枚,平均例12.3枚。67例前哨淋巴结活检成功的患者中,29例患者（43.3%）有腋窝淋巴结转移,其中前哨淋巴结有转移者24例（35.8%）,前哨淋巴结未发现转移而非前哨淋巴结有转移者5例（7.5%）。7例患者（10.4%）只有有淋巴结为阳性淋巴结,前哨淋巴结活检的准确性为100％。43例患者的65枚HE染色阴性一的前哨淋巴结,CK8及CK19免疫组织化学染色均为阴性。结论 前哨淋巴结检能较准确地预测腋窝淋巴结转移情况,对原发灶为T1的乳腺癌,前哨淋巴结活检的准确性为100％。同一层面切片行免疫组织化学染色并不能提高淋巴结微转移癌的发现率。     

Efficacy of 3-dimensional endorectal ultrasonography compared with conventional ultrasonography and computed tomography in preoperative rectal cancer staging

BACKGROUND: This study was performed to verify reports of the decreased accuracy of endorectal ultrasonography (EUS) in preoperative staging of rectal cancer, and to compare the efficacy of 3-dimensional (3D) EUS with that of 2-dimensional (2D) EUS and computed tomography (CT). METHODS: Eighty-six consecutive rectal cancer patients undergoing curative surgery were evaluated by 2D EUS, 3D EUS, and CT scan. RESULTS: The accuracy in T-staging was 78% for 3D EUS, 69% for 2D EUS, and 57% for CT (P < .001-.002), whereas the accuracy in evaluating lymph node metastases was 65%, 56%, and 53%, respectively (P < .001-.006). Examiner errors were the most frequent cause of misinterpretation, occurring in 47% of 2D EUS examinations and in 65% of 3D EUS examinations. By eliminating examiner errors, the accuracy rates in T-staging and lymph node evaluation could be improved to 88% and 76%, respectively, for 2D EUS, and to 91% and 90%, respectively, for 3D EUS. Conical protrusions along the deep tumor border on 3D images were correlated closely with infiltration grade, advanced T-stage, and lymph node metastasis. CONCLUSIONS: We found that 3D EUS showed greater accuracy than 2D EUS or CT in rectal cancer staging and lymph node metastases. Concrete 3D images based on tumor biology appear to provide more accurate information on tumor progression.     

Can computed tomography of the chest stage lung cancer? Yes and no

To determine the accuracy of computed tomography (CT) of the chest in the staging of lung cancer, we studied 418 patients with primary pulmonary carcinoma between 1979 and 1986. Each had a preoperative scan performed before detailed operative staging. Each CT scan was analyzed for components of the current TNM staging system. Computed tomography sensitivity and specificity for mediastinal lymph node metastasis were 84.4% and 84.1%, with corresponding positive and negative predictive accuracies of 68.7% and 92.9%, respectively. When TNM stages were derived from CT scans, only 190 of 418 (45.4%) completely agreed with operative staging. An additional 53 of 418 (12.7%) predicted the correct stage, although components of the TNM system were incorrect. In 94 of 418 scans (22.5%) CT overestimated the stage, whereas in 81 (19.4%) CT downgraded the stage. Computed tomography suggested metastatic lesions in liver, lung, adrenal gland, bone, or abdominal lymph nodes in 40 of 373 scans (10.7%); only five of 40 (12.5%) had documented metastasis. In summary, CT of the chest cannot accurately stage primary lung carcinoma according to the TNM classification. Because the negative predictive accuracy for mediastinal lymph node metastasis remains high (92.9%), invasive staging can be deferred for definitive thoracotomy when no lymphadenopathy is evident on CT. The high negative predictive accuracy for scans of the chest and upper abdomen makes CT a useful tool for exclusion of metastatic disease.     

Study of mediastinal lymph nodes in lung cancer using transesophageal ultrasonography]

Evaluation of mediastinal lymph nodes in patients with lung cancer is fundamental for their treatment and prognosis. Chest computed tomography (CT) is presently the most utilized diagnostic modality. In recent years endoscopic ultrasound (EUS) is being employed for this purpose. We retrospectively compared the results of CT and EUS staging of 35 selected patients with postsurgical stage. A total of 175 lymph node sites were examined. Results CT vs EUS were as follows: specificity 92% vs 98%, sensitivity 88% vs 84%, positive predicted accuracy 80% vs 96%, negative predicted accuracy 95% vs 94%, overall accuracy 92% vs 95%. The region most accessible by EUS evaluation were the paraesophageal lymph nodes; the most difficult were the right superior mediastinal nodes which cannot be imaged for anatomic reasons. EUS not only allows one to arrive at correct diagnosis with less false positive results, but also permits evaluation of lymph nodes which are not enlarged. We think that EUS, in combination with CT, is an appropriate modality for staging of mediastinal lymph nodes in patients with lung cancer.     

Endoscopic ultrasonography for gastric cancer

BACKGROUND: This study aimed to evaluate the utility and shortcomings of endoscopic ultrasound (EUS) in tumor node metastasis (TNM) staging of gastric cancer and its influence on treatment. METHODS: The series included 126 patients (65 men and 44 women) with gastric cancer who underwent EUS from July 1997 to June 2003 at the National University Hospital, Singapore. The final analysis included 109 patients ranging in age from 29 to 97 years (mean, 63.13 years). RESULTS: EUS staging for primary disease: Specimen histology was available for 102 of the 109 patients who underwent surgery. The accuracy was 79% for T1, 73.9% for T2, 85.7% for T3, and 72.7% for T4. The overall accuracy was 80.4%. EUS staging for nodes: The sensitivity of EUS for detecting nodal disease was 74.2% for N0, 78% for N1, 53.8% for N2, and 50% for N3. Overall, the N staging by EUS showed a sensitivity of 82.8%, a specificity of 74.2%, a positive predictive value of 85.4%, a negative predictive value of 70.2%, and an accuracy of 77.7%. Radical gastrectomy was proposed for 95 patients on the basis of the staging with EUS and computed tomography (CT) scan, and 87 patients (91.6%) underwent the surgery. Preoperative staging accurately predicted the operative strategy for 89% of the patients. No significant predictor for accuracy was achieved by performing a logistic regression analysis for the correct staging of T stage using EUS and adjusting for tumor location (middle part/distal third/whole stomach vs proximal/cardioesophageal) (p = 0.873), operator (p = 0.546), and subject's sequence (initial 50 vs last 50 cases) (p = 0.06). CONCLUSION: Ultrasound is the most accurate and reliable method for the preoperative staging of gastric carcinomas, and it is mandatory if a tailored therapeutic approach is planned according to stage.     

Clinical staging of esophageal carcinoma. CT, EUS, and PET

CT is readily available to all patients. It is relatively inexpensive and fees are usually reimbursed. It provides exquisite anatomic detail of the chest and abdomen in patients with esophageal cancer. The only reliable use of CT in the determination of T is the exclusion of T4 tumors, which is suggested by the preservation of fat planes. Enlarged lymph nodes are suspicious for metastatic disease but require further study or tissue sampling if nodal metastases will determine treatment. Its major use is in the detection of distant metastatic disease; however, 30% to 60% of distant metastases may be radiographically occult. There is a significant learning curve for EUS staging of esophageal cancer. It is suggested that this study be performed at institutions where there is a dedicated, experienced endoscopic ultrasonographer with adequate instrumentation that allows specialty imaging and EUS-FNA. EUS is the best means of clinically determining T. The addition of EUS-FNA to routine EUS evaluation of lymph nodes allows an accuracy similar to the EUS determination of T. EUS has no purpose in assessment of non-nodal distant metastatic disease; however, the serendipitous finding of distant metastases in adjacent structures visualized during the evaluation of the primary tumor and lymph nodes has, on occasion, detected M1b disease. FDG-PET represents an advance over CT scanning in the screening for distant metastases. The major problems with FDG-PET staging of esophageal cancer is failure to detect metastatic deposits less than 1 cm in diameter and lack of anatomic definition. It is unable to determine T and has been inaccurate in the detection of lymph node metastases. Because this test is not readily available, is expensive, and is not routinely reimbursed, its use in staging esophageal cancer continues to be limited. Today, CT and EUS are the mainstays in the clinical staging of esophageal carcinoma. When possible, FDG-PET should be added to CT to improve the evaluation of non-nodal M1b disease. Results of these studies should determine the necessity for invasive staging techniques and direct their use.     

Multimodal treatment of non small cell lung cancer

The primary treatment of lung cancer depends on tumor stage. Chest CT scan and bronchoscopy are used to define the TNM stage and resectability. In case of lung cancer without mediastinal lymph node enlargement or direct mediastinal involvement (clinical stage I-IIb + T3N1) surgical treatment is recommended. The use of adjuvant chemotherapy has to be defined, but will be indicated in stage II and IIIa. Expected 5-year survival achieves 40 to 80 % depending on tumor stage. Exceeds the shorter diameter of mediastinal lymph nodes in chest CT scan more than 1 cm (or in case of positive PET scan) mediastinoscopy is indicated. In case of N2-disease and after tumor response to preoperative chemotherapy (about 60 %) secondary resection of the tumor leads to higher 5-year survival rates (20-40 %) compared to patients without induction therapy (5-20 %). In these patients and after unexpected detection of solitary lymph node metastasis by primary resection adjuvant mediastinal radiotherapy should be added. If the tumor has infiltrated the mediastinum or the upper sulcus (T3/4) and/or mediastinal lymph nodes are obviously tumor burden (e. g. > 3 cm, N2 bulky, N3) radical primary resection may not be possible. In these patients combined radio- and chemotherapy induces a high percentage of tumor regression and can be used before secondary resection (5-year survival 5-20 %). Locally advanced tumors infiltrating the main bronchus close to the carina or the carina itself and tumors with metastases in the same lobe, both without mediastinal lymph node metastases (T3/4N0-1), can be resected by sleeve pneumonectomy and lobectomy with satisfactory results respectively. In patients with resectable lung cancer and no clinical sign of tumor disease (f. e. anemia, weight loss, pain) limited staging procedure with chest CT scan including upper abdomen and bronchoscopy is reasonable. In the remaining patients complete staging is necessary. We recommend an interdisciplinary approach to patients with lung cancer.