利用GAD67-GFP基因敲入方法显示小鼠脊髓内表达GFP的GABA能神经元的分布(英文)

γ-氨基丁酸 (GABA)是脊髓背角、前角内主要的抑制性神经递质。为了更好地观察脊髓背角内 GABA能神经元的形态和功能 ,本研究使用了两种谷氨酸脱羧酶 67-绿色荧光蛋白 (GAD67-GFP)基因敲入小鼠 ,并观察了敲入小鼠脊髓内的 GFP表达状况。用免疫荧光组织化学双标记方法显示脊髓内所有的 GF P阳性神经元基本上都呈 GAD67和 GABA阳性 ;GFP阳性神经元在脊髓背角的 ～ 层最为密集 ,背角深层内侧部及中央管周围呈中等密度分布 ,而在脊髓背角其它部位及前角则呈散在分布。脊髓内 GFP阳性神经元的分布与 GABA能神经元的分布一致。本文作者等还进一步在 GAD67-GFP敲入小鼠中观察了 GFP和神经元标志物神经元核蛋白 (Neu N )的共存状况。脊髓背角内 GFP阳性神经元分别占 、 和 层的 Neu N阳性神经元的 3 1.5 %、3 3 .3 %和 44 .7% ,与以往的 GABA免疫组化研究结果基本一致。本研究表明 GAD67-GFP基因敲入小鼠脊髓内的 GFP在GAD67启动子的调节下正确地表达于 GABA能神经元 ,该基因敲入小鼠可用于脊髓 GABA能神经元的形态学特征和生理学特性及其发育规律等方面的研究     

异种脊髓前角匀浆对豚鼠前角运动神经元的影响

目的：观察豚鼠脊髓前角运动神经元在异种脊髓前角匀浆免疫后的变化。方法：猪脊髓前角匀浆免疫豚鼠后,豚鼠脊髓前角以苏木精-伊红、甲苯胺蓝及IgG免疫组化染色,同时电镜下观察前角运动神经元的超微变化。结果：豚鼠脊髓前角运动神经元存在变性和丢失,以神经元固缩、胶质细胞围绕破坏的神经元形成卫星现象及小墓穴为主,脊髓前角运动神经元胞质内IgG沉积呈颗粒状分布。运动神经元胞质内内质网扩张、线粒体肿胀。结论：猪脊髓前角匀浆作为抗原可引起豚鼠下运动神经元损伤,说明猪与豚鼠运动神经元存在共同抗原,自身免疫机制可能参与了运动神经元变性过程。     

信号转导子与转录激活子3和细胞因子信号转导抑制因子-3蛋白在成年大鼠脊髓内的表达与定位

目的分析JAK-STAT信号转导途径重要成员STAT3蛋白和该途径抑制蛋白SOCS-3在大鼠脊髓内的表达和细胞内定位分布。方法免疫细胞化学技术和形态计量学方法。结果STAT3免疫阳性产物主要分布于脊髓前角运动神经元的胞浆内；SOCS-3免疫阳性产物广泛分布于脊髓前角及后角神经元内、部分胶质细胞及神经纤维内。在前角运动神经元内，SOCS-3免疫阳性产物主要分布于核内，有时也可分布于胞浆中。结论STAT3和SOCS-3广泛表达于正常大鼠脊髓内，其中SOCS-3具有核蛋白或胞浆蛋白两种存在形式。     

Tau蛋白及其异常磷酸化在肌萎缩侧索硬化症中的研究进展

肌萎缩侧索硬化症是一种以脊髓前角和大脑皮层运动神经元死亡为病理特征,表现为上、下运动神经元损害症状的运动神经元病。Tau蛋白是脑内非常重要的微管相关蛋白,其异常磷酸化在神经退行性疾病中起重要的作用。过度磷酸化的Tau蛋白不但影响Tau蛋白与微管的结合能力,而且还能影响其他微管集合蛋白与微管的结合能力,进而导致神经元和皮质轴突的病理性改变,发生神经元退变。已有研究表明,在肌萎缩侧索硬化症的病理过程中,Tau蛋白的过度磷酸化可能是疾病过程的关键事件。对Tau蛋白的相关功能及调控机制进行深入的研究可能为ALS的发病机制增加新的理论基础,为该病的治疗提供新的靶点。     

腺病毒载体介导bcl-2基因转染在离体和在体状态下对损伤运动神经元的保护作用

本文目的在于观察携带 bcl-2基因的重组腺病毒 (Ad/ s-bcl-2 )在离体和在体条件下对损伤运动神经元的保护作用。采用培养脊髓运动神经元的谷氨酸损伤模型和大鼠坐骨神经切断损伤模型 ,评价重组 bcl-2腺病毒对损伤运动神经元的影响。指标是bcl-2原位杂交和免疫组化反应、台盼蓝拒染法检测培养神经元存活、TU NEL 阳性神经元计数以及脊髓运动神经元 ACh E反应。结果 :(1) Ad/ s-bcl-2可转染离体和在体脊髓运动神经元并使其过表达 bcl-2。 (2 )过表达 bcl-2可延长培养神经元的生存时间。(3 )过表达 bcl-2可显著地减少谷氨酸诱导的原代培养脊髓运动神经元的凋亡以及坐骨神经切断损伤诱导的脊髓运动神经元的凋亡。 (4 )过表达 bcl-2可显著地缓解坐骨神经损伤诱导的神经元内 ACh E的活性降低 ,并加速其恢复。本研究结果提示 :腺病毒载体中介 bcl-2基因转染对离体和在体损伤的运动神经元均具有保护作用     

免疫介导的脊髓运动神经元损伤过程中细胞周期素依赖蛋白激酶5的表达及意义

目的:研究免疫介导的神经元损伤过程中细胞周期素依赖蛋白激酶5(CDK5)表达的特征,探讨其损伤机制。方法:建立免疫介导的脊髓前角运动神经元损伤的模型,利用免疫组化方法观察脊髓前角运动神经元CDK5及p35/ p25的表达特征。结果:对照组豚鼠脊髓运动神经元CDK5及p35/p25主要在细胞核及细胞膜下表达,胞质着色淡;注射牛脊髓前角匀浆而无肢体瘫痪的豚鼠,脊髓运动神经元CDK5及p35/p25表达在数量上增加,强度上增强;有明显肢体瘫痪的豚鼠CDK5及p35/p25免疫反应阳性神经元数量明显减少,部分胞质内无着色。结论:CDK5及p35/ p25在神经元胞质内的易位表达,在免疫介导的神经元损伤过程中具有重要的作用。     

大鼠骨骼肌35kD运动神经诱向因子单克隆抗体的产生和鉴定

为探究脊髓运动神经元诱向因予,用大鼠腓骨肌提取液(PMe)作Phast电泳,分离PMe中能促进脊髓前角神经元生长的35kD蛋白带免疫动物。细胞融合,经MTT微量比色筛选,获得2株抗大鼠骨骼35kD蛋白的单克隆抗体。命名为ME10,MG9。2株单抗对体外培养的脊髓前角运动神经元的生长活性显示抑制作用,MTT OD值分别为0.023±0.003,0.030±0.005,以ME10抑制效应更强。与单独加35kD蛋白凝胶时促进细胞生长的OD值0.050±0.002比较,差别有显著意义(ME10 P<0.01,G9P<0.05)。为鉴定ME10单抗的特异性,进行中和试验。结果发现:ME10对运动神经元生长的抑制作用被35kD蛋白特异性地中和,说明ME10是3kD蛋白特异性抗体。用ME10单抗进行免疫组化反应,在骨骼肌细胞浆内,运动神经末稍都有免疫反应阳性物质,表明从腓肠肌组织提取液中分离的35kD蛋白是由骨骼肌细胞产生的神经诱向因子。     

神经根撕脱后脊髓运动神经元的病理表现

目的:观察神经根撕脱后脊髓前角运动神经元的病理表现,探讨在该条件下运动神经元死亡的神经生物学机制。方法:选择成年SD雌性大鼠20只,体重200-300g,撕脱右侧臂丛C₅-T₈神经根,术后动物存活3d、5d、1周后取C₅-C₈节段脊髓,对冰冻切片行NADPH-d组化、c-jun免疫组化、中性红和HE染色。观察神经元的形态,计数脊髓前角NOS阳性运动神经元及存活运动神经元数目,以非损伤侧的前角运动神经元数目为100%,计算百分比。结果:神经根撕脱3d、5d、1周后,损伤侧脊髓前角NOS运动神经元平均阳性率分别为:0.74%±0.59%、24.83%±6.73%、51.16%±8.67%。神经元平均存活率分别为93.00%±4.32%、93.67%±5.27%、89.83%±2.65%;c-Jun从撕脱术后3d就有表达,5d后表达开始减少。运动神经元形态变化不明显。1周时偶见前角运动神经元的胞核偏位,但核膜清晰,核仁尚存,染色体固缩。结论:脊神经根撕脱1周内,脊髓前角运动神经元NOS表达递增,c-Jun表达递减,运动神经元开始死亡。NO/NOS可能通过抑制神经元损伤后的再生反应,促进脊髓前角运动神经元的死亡。     

抗BDNF血清对小鼠坐骨神经损伤后脊髓前角运动神经元内GAP-43表达的影响

小鼠坐骨神经压榨损伤后 ,腹腔注射抗 BDNF血清 ,动物存活 2周。用组织原位杂交技术与免疫组织化学方法观察生长相关蛋白 ( GAP-4 3)在脊髓腰骶膨大部前角运动神经元的表达 ,并对实验结果进行图像分析。结果发现 ,注射抗 BDNF血清后坐骨神经损伤侧脊髓前角 GAP-4 3m RNA的阳性神经元与 GAP-4 3免疫反应阳性神经元的数目减少 ,阳性神经元的光密度也降低 ,上述改变在统计学上均有显著意义。结果提示 ,小鼠坐骨神经损伤后内源性 BDNF可能参与脊髓前角运动神经元 GAP-4 3的表达     

猫脊髓后角浅层内GABA能神经终末与表达阿片μ受体神经元之间的突触联系

为了研究ＧＡＢＡ与ＭＯＲ在吗啡镇痛中的相互关系，用包埋前免疫组织化学方法结合包埋后胶体金电镜技术，观察了猫脊髓后角浅层内γ－氨基丁酸（ＧＡＢＡ）能轴突终末与表达阿片μ受体神经元之间的突触联系。结果表明，后角浅层内约有三分之一的ＭＯＲ阳性树突和胞体与ＧＡＢＡ阳性终末形成突触连接，这些突触均为对称性突触。本实验结果提示猫脊髓后角浅层内ＭＯＲ阳性神经元的功能活动可能受到突触前成分释放的ＧＡＢＡ的影响     

Imbalance between the expression of NK1 and GABAB receptors in nociceptive spinal neurons during secondary hyperalgesia: a c-Fos study in the monoarthritic rat

The neurochemical changes that operate in nociceptive spinal cord circuits during secondary hyperalgesia are largely unknown, in particular with respect to the balance between excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmission. In this study we evaluated the expression of NK1 and GABA(B) receptors in nociceptive spinal neurons in a model of secondary hyperalgesia consisting of noxious mechanical stimulation of the hindlimb skin close to a joint chronically inflamed by complete Freund's adjuvant. In spinal segments receiving input from that skin area, Fos-immunodetection was combined with immunocytochemistry for NK1 receptors, GABA(B) receptors or both receptors. In control and monoarthritic animals, neurons double-labeled for Fos and each receptor occurred mainly in laminae I and IV-V. In lamina I, the percentage of NK1 neurons expressing Fos was higher in monoarthritics while lower percentages of GABA(B) neurons expressed Fos. The percentage of Fos-positive cells expressing NK1 immunoreaction did not change in monoarthritics but that of Fos cells with GABA(B) immunoreaction was lower in these animals. In laminae IV-V, a large increase in Fos expression was detected in monoarthritic rats but the relative proportions of Fos-positive neurons expressing each receptor were similar in the two groups. Co-localization of NK1 and GABA(B) receptors occurred only in lamina I neurons in both experimental groups with no differences between control and monoarthritic animals in the percentages of Fos-positive neurons that expressed the receptors. Considering the participation of lamina I neurons bearing NK1 and GABA(B) receptors in several spinofugal systems, it is possible that the imbalance between excitatory and inhibitory actions exerted, respectively, by substance P and GABA may subserve secondary hyperalgesia by increasing ascending transmission of nociceptive input.     

Presynaptic regulation of spinal cord tachykinin signaling via GABA(B) but not GABA(A) receptor activation

Internalization of spinal cord neurokinin-1 receptors following noxious stimulation provides a reliable measure of tachykinin signaling. In the present study, we examined the contribution of GABAergic mechanisms to the control of nociceptor processing involving tachykinins. Spinal administration of the GABA(B) receptor agonist R(+)-baclofen in the rat, at antinociceptive doses, significantly reduced the magnitude of neurokinin-1 receptor internalization in neurons of lamina I in response to acute noxious mechanical or thermal stimulation. By contrast, administration of even high doses of the GABA(A) receptor agonists, muscimol or isoguvacine, were without effect. CGP55845, a selective GABA(B) receptor antagonist, completely blocked the effects of baclofen, but failed to increase the incidence of internalization when administered alone. These results provide evidence for a presynaptic control of nociceptive primary afferent neurons by GABA(B) but not GABA(A) receptors in the superficial laminae of the spinal cord, limiting tachykinin release. Because CGP5584 alone did not increase the magnitude of neurokinin-1 receptor internalization observed following noxious stimulation, there appears to be little endogenous activation of GABA(B) receptors on tachykinin-releasing nociceptors under acute stimulus conditions. The contribution of pre- and postsynaptic regulatory mechanisms to GABA(B) receptor-mediated antinociception was also investigated by comparing the effect of baclofen on Fos expression evoked by noxious stimulation to that induced by intrathecal injection of substance P. In both instances, baclofen reduced Fos expression not only in neurons that express the neurokinin-1 receptor, but also in neurons that do not.We conclude that baclofen acts at presynaptic sites to reduce transmitter release from small-diameter nociceptive afferents. Presynaptic actions on non-tachykinin-containing nociceptors could similarly account for the reduction by baclofen of noxious stimulus-induced Fos expression in neurokinin-1 receptor-negative neurons. However, the inhibition of Fos expression induced by exogenous substance P indicates that actions at sites postsynaptic to tachykinin- and/or non-tachykinin-containing primary afferent terminals must also contribute to the antinociceptive actions of GABA(B) receptor agonists.     

大鼠脊髓背角的GABA能神经末梢来源及其突触联系──HRP追踪与免疫细胞化学结合法研究及免疫电镜观察

本文用ＨＲＰ追踪与免疫细胞化学结合法和免疫电镜技术研究了脊髓背角的ＧＡＢＡ神经元的分布、ＧＡＢＡ能末梢的来源及其超微结构联系。结果表明：在脊髓背角Ⅰ～Ⅵ层内均有ＧＡＢＡ神经元胞体和纤维分布，其中Ⅰ～Ⅲ层较为密集，在后外侧束内也存在ＧＡＢＡ能纤维及胞体。脊髓背角的ＧＡＢＡ能神经末梢有３个来源：①延髓的大缝核、隐缝核、苍白缝核及腹侧网状结构的ＧＡＢＡ能神经元；②脊髓固有的ＧＡＢＡ能神经元；③脊神经节的ＧＡＢＡ能神经元。ＧＡＢＡ能末梢可作为突触前成分或突触后成分与未标记末梢形成轴－树突触，也可同时作为突触前、后成分而形成轴－树型自调节突触。结果提示突触前的ＧＡＢＡ能末梢可能对脊髓背角内的其它神经元起抑制和脱抑制作用；同时背角内ＧＡＢＡ能神经元还接受其它神经元的调控。     

Co-localized GABA and somatostatin use different ionic mechanisms to hyperpolarize target neurons in the lamprey spinal cord.

gamma-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) and somatostatin are co-localized in cells close to the central canal in the lamprey. These cells project to the lateral margin of the spinal cord where they form a GABA and somatostatin containing plexus. Stretch receptor neurons (edge cells) are situated along the lateral margin of the spinal cord and their dendrites extend into the GABA and somatostatin containing plexus. To investigate whether GABA and/or somatostatin exert an affect on edge cells, these putative transmitters were applied from extracellular pipettes onto edge cells during intracellular recordings. Both GABA and somatostatin hyperpolarized the edge cells but through different ionic mechanisms. GABA activated a chloride current while somatostatin activated a current most likely carried by potassium which, however, could not be blocked by any of the conventional potassium blockers.     

马桑内酯致痫大鼠海马神经元丢失及化学性质的研究

为观察癫痫发作过程海马神经元丢失细胞的主要死亡方式 ,用马桑内酯建立慢性致痫大鼠模型 ,以 Nissl染色、免疫组化、TUNEL法以及后二者相结合的技术 ,对海马神经元及其中的抑制性神经元的丢失进行了分区观察、统计、分析。结果发现 :致痫组海马各区神经元较对照组明显减少 ,不同区域减少程度不同 ,以齿状回减少最为明显 ;免疫组化结果显示 ,致痫组的抑制性神经元 GABA-IR神经元、PV-IR神经元、CB-IR神经元在海马各区有不同程度的减少 ,其中 GABA-IR神经元减少最明显。在海马各区所有丢失的神经元中 ,三种抑制性神经元所占的比例不同 ;并在海马各区均可见到 TUNEL -GABA、TUNEL-PV、TU NEL-CB双重反应阳性神经元。提示 :马桑内酯所致的癫痫发作 ,可引起海马神经元丢失 ,且不同区域丢失的程度不同 ,丢失的神经元可能以凋亡方式为主 ;海马抑制性神经元 GABA-IR、PV-IR、CB-IR神经元在癫痫发作过程中也有不同程度的丢失 ,丢失很可能也是以凋亡形式为主     

Non-competitive inhibition of GABA currents by phenothiazines in cultured chick spinal cord and rat hippocampal neurons

The gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) inhibiting properties of several classes of antipsychotic medications were studied using gigaseal whole-cell voltage-clamp techniques in cultured chick spinal cord and rat hippocampal neurons. At doses above 1 microM trifluoperazine, chlorpromazine and thioridazine blocked GABA currents in a non-competitive fashion decreasing the maximal transmitter response without altering the half-maximal effective concentration. In contrast, haloperidol was ineffective against GABA at concentrations up to 100 microM. Among the agents studied trifluoperazine was the most potent GABA inhibitor with half maximal effect at 12 microM. Trifluoperazine (100 microM) also inhibited glycine-gated chloride currents in spinal cord neurons to an extent comparable to GABA (85 +/- 6% inhibition) but reduced glutamate currents by less than 35% in either spinal cord or hippocampal neurons.     

Glutamate- and GABA-immunoreactive synapses on sympathetic preganglionic neurons caudal to a spinal cord transection in rats

Spinal cord injury destroys bulbospinal amino acid-containing pathways to sympathetic preganglionic neurons and severely disrupts blood pressure control, resulting in resting or postural hypotension and episodic hypertension. Almost all immunoreactivity for the excitatory amino acid l-glutamate has been reported to disappear from autonomic areas of the cord caudal to a transection, apparently depriving autonomic neurons of their major excitatory input. However, the magnitude of the neurogenic episodic hypertension after cord injury suggests that excitatory inputs to sympathetic preganglionic neurons must still be present. Moreover, the hypotension associated with high spinal injuries may reflect a enhanced role for inhibitory transmitters, such as GABA. This apparent contradiction regarding the presence of glutamate and lack of information about GABA prompted the present investigation. In rats seven days after spinal cord transection, we examined identified sympathetic preganglionic neurons caudal to the injury for the presence of synapses or direct contacts from varicosities that were immunoreactive for the amino acids, l-glutamate and GABA. Adrenal sympathetic preganglionic neurons were retrogradely labelled with cholera toxin B subunit and amino acid immunoreactivity was revealed with post-embedding immunogold labelling. In single ultrathin sections, 46% (98/212) of the synapses or direct contacts on adrenal sympathetic preganglionic neurons were immunoreactive for glutamate and 39% (83/214) were immunoreactive for GABA. Analysis of inputs with the physical disector yielded similar results for the two amino acids. The proportions of glutamatergic or GABAergic synapses on cell bodies and dendrites were similar. When alternate ultrathin sections were stained to reveal glutamate or GABA immunoreactivity, either one or the other amino acid occurred in 78.4% (116/148) of inputs; 4.1% (6/148) of inputs contained both amino acids and 17.5% (26/148) of inputs contained neither.These results demonstrate that nerve fibres immunoreactive for the neurotransmitter amino acids, glutamate and GABA, provide most of the input to sympathetic preganglionic neurons caudal to a spinal cord transection. Synapses containing glutamate and GABA could provide the anatomical substrate for the exaggerated sympathetic reflexes and the low sympathetic tone that result from spinal cord injury.     

State-dependent changes in glutamate, glycine, GABA, and dopamine levels in cat lumbar spinal cord

Recent studies have indicated that the glycine receptor antagonist strychnine and the gamma-aminobutyric acid type A (GABA A) receptor antagonist bicuculline reduced the rapid-eye-movement (REM) sleep-specific inhibition of sensory inflow via the dorsal spinocerebellar tract (DSCT). These findings imply that the spinal release of glycine and GABA may be due directly to the REM sleep-specific activation of reticulospinal neurons and/or glutamate-activated last-order spinal interneurons. This study used in vivo microdialysis and high-performance liquid chromatography analysis techniques to provide evidence for these possibilities. Microdialysis probes were stereotaxically positioned in the L3 spinal cord gray matter corresponding to sites where maximal cerebellar-evoked field potentials or individual DSCT and nearby spinoreticular tract (SRT) neurons could be recorded. Glutamate, glycine, and GABA levels significantly increased during REM sleep by approximately 48, 48, and 14%, respectively, compared with the control state of wakefulness. In contrast, dopamine levels significantly decreased by about 28% during REM sleep compared with wakefulness. During the state of wakefulness, electrical stimulation of the nucleus reticularis gigantocellularis (NRGc) at intensities sufficient to inhibit DSCT neuron activity, also significantly increased glutamate and glycine levels by about 69 and 45%, respectively, but not GABA or dopamine levels. We suggest that the reciprocal changes in the release of glutamate, glycine, and GABA versus dopamine during REM sleep contribute to the reduction of sensory inflow to higher brain centers via the DSCT and nearby SRT during this behavioral state. The neural pathways involved in this process likely include reticulo- and diencephalospinal and spinal interneurons.     

Physiological and morphological correlates of presynaptic inhibition in primary afferents of the lamprey spinal cord.

Patch-clamp recordings in a whole-cell mode were performed on dorsal sensory cells enzymatically isolated from the spinal cord of two lamprey species, Ichthyomyzon unicuspis and Lampetra fluviatilis. The voltage-activated currents through calcium channels were analysed. GABA and the specific GABA(B) receptor agonist baclofen reduced the peak amplitude of inward Ba2+ current, as a robust alternate charge carrier through voltage-dependent Ca2+ channels. These effects were dose-dependent and reversible. GABA(B) receptor antagonists, 2-hydroxysaclofen and delta-amino-n-valeric acid, blocked the reduction of Ba2+ currents by GABA and baclofen, while bicuculline, a GABA(A) receptor antagonist, had no blocking action. GABA and baclofen did not modify the dorsal sensory cell membrane conductance, indicating that they did not activate ligand-gated channels. However, GABA, but not baclofen, considerably increased membrane conductance and induced Cl- currents in isolated multipolar neurons (presumably interneurons and/or motoneurons). These findings suggest that GABA and baclofen action on lamprey dorsal sensory cells is mediated by GABA(B) receptors. We concluded that GABA-mediated presynaptic inhibition of lamprey dorsal sensory cell fibers results from GABA(B) receptor activation followed by a decrease of inward voltage-activated calcium currents. Appositions of GABA-immunoreactive boutons to horseradish peroxidase-labeled fibers from the dorsal root were observed at the ultrastructural level in the dorsal column using postembedding immunogold cytochemistry. It seems likely that these appositions represent the morphological substrate of dorsal sensory cell fiber presynaptic inhibition. In very rare cases, ultrastructural features were observed which could be interpreted as synaptic specializations between the GABA-immunoreactive boutons and the primary afferent fibers. The extrasynaptic action of GABA as a basis of presynaptic inhibition of this population of primary afferent neurons is discussed.     

When and why amino acids?

This article reviews especially the early history of glutamate and GABA as neurotransmitters in vertebrates. The proposal that some amino acids could mediate synaptic transmission in the CNS initially met with much resistance. Both GABA and its parent glutamate are abundant in the brain; but, unlike glutamate, GABA had no obvious metabolic function. By the late 1950s, the switch of interest from electrical to chemical transmission invigorated the search for central transmitters. Its identification with Factor I, a brain extract that inhibited crustacean muscle, focused interest on GABA as a possible inhibitory transmitter. In the first microiontophoretic tests, though GABA strongly inhibited spinal neurons, these effects were considered 'non-specific'. Strong excitation by glutamate (and other acidic amino acids) led to the same conclusion. However, their great potency and rapid actions on cortical neurons convinced other authors that these endogenous amino acids are probably synaptic transmitters. This was partly confirmed by showing that both IPSPs and GABA greatly increased Cl⁻ conductance, their effects having similar reversal potentials. Many anticonvulsants proving to be GABA antagonists, by the 1970s GABA became widely accepted as a mediator of IPSPs. Progress was much slower for glutamate. Being generated on distant dendrites, EPSPs could not be easily compared with glutamate-induced excitation, and the search for specific antagonists was long hampered by the lack of blockers and the variety of glutamate receptors. These difficulties were gradually overcome by the application of powerful techniques, such as single channel recording, cloning receptors, as well as new pharmacological tools.