2010年昆明市吸毒者梅毒及HIV性传播危险

目的 了解昆明市吸毒者行为学和人口学特征、梅毒、HIV感染情况及相关因素.方法 采用一对一结构问卷调查及血清抗体检测对昆明市戒毒所吸毒者进行横断面研究.结果 共调查吸毒者872人,98.9％使用海洛因,8.9％曾滥用新型毒品,74.1％注射吸毒,27.3％曾共用针具；67.3％有固定性伴,其中仅10.5％最近一年与固定性伴坚持使用安全套；23.7％最近一年有商业性行为,43.7％与商业性伴坚持使用安全套；无论有无固定性伴,吸毒者的商业性行为比例及交易过程中安全套使用比例均无显著性差异(x2均小于1.83,P＞0.4).吸毒者中梅毒感染率为4.5％(39/872),女性吸毒者中为9.9％(12/122).女性(OR:3.8,95％CI:1.8-8.2)、外来吸毒者(OR:2.9,95％CI:1.4-6.1)和低文化程度(OR:2.6,95％CI:1.3-5.5)为梅毒感染影响因素；HIV感染率为14.3％(125/872),共用针具者中达29.5％(52/176),注射吸毒和共用针具为相关影响因素(OR:4.2,95％CI:2.0-9.0;OR:11.1,95％CI:5.1-24.4).结论 昆明市吸毒者中梅毒和HIV感染率较高,高危性行为较普遍,HIV经性途径向固定性伴或其他人群传播的危险不容忽视.积极防治吸毒者的梅毒感染,及时发现管理HIV感染者,加强高危性行为干预,对控制全市梅毒及HIV流行具有重要意义.     

注射吸毒人群性病艾滋病血清学检测分析

目的 了解注射吸毒人群性痛艾滋病感染情况，为科学防控提供理论依据。方法 艾滋病使用酶联免疫吸附试验（ELISA），梅毒使用RPR血清学试验；收集疫情数据进行统计学分析。结果 HIV感染率6．73％，20～29岁感染率较高，8．57％；梅毒感染率4．33％，30～39岁感染率较高，5．95％。男女注射吸毒者感染HIV与梅毒的差异无统计学意义。结论 开展高危人群性病艾滋病生物学监测非常必要，有利于及时发现、控制传染源，降低其传播与流行，对传染病的防控具有重要的指导意义。     

广州地区不同人群女性性传播感染状况调查与分析

目的调查广州地区不同人群女性性传播感染（STI）的流行现状。方法由调查员进行现场问卷调查,采集血液进行HIV、RPR／TPPA、HSV-2抗体检测,采集白带涂片检测白念珠菌、阴道加特纳菌、阴道毛滴虫;宫颈拭子培养萘瑟氏淋病双球菌（GC）、沙眼衣原体（CT）、脲原体（UU）。结果共调查788例不同人群组的女性。流动女工STI总体感染率为41．6％,位居前3位的病原体感染分别为UU（25．1％）、HSV-2（14．9％）、CT（6．2％）;妇科门诊人群总体STI感染率为71．1％,位居前3位分别为uu（41．5％）、HSV-2（18．7％）、CT（11．1％）;暗娼STI总体感染率为90．1％,前3位感染分别为UU（74．6％）、HSV．2（47．5％）、阴道白念珠菌（17．8％）,其它依次为加特纳菌（14．9％）、TP（14．9％）、CT（14．4％）。除了门诊组及暗娼组分别发现1例HIV感染,差异无统计学意义外,不同组间STI感染差异均有统计学意义。结论广州地区3组女性人群中,位居前2位的STI感染率分别为UU（25．1％-74．6％）、HSV-2（14．9％～47．5％）,CT感染率为6．2％～14．4％。因此,除了加强妇科门诊STI防治外,加强对流动女工STI感染防治宣传很有必要。     

天津市2011-2015年吸毒人群HCV感染状况及影响因素分析

目的 分析天津市2011-2015年艾滋病哨点监测中吸毒人群HCV感染状况及影响因素,为制定相关控制措施提供依据.方法 2011-2015年4-6月对新进入监管场所的吸毒者进行问卷调查并采集血液进行相关血清学检测,通过多因素分析探索该人群HCV感染的影响因素.结果 2011-2015年每年监测调查对象400人,五年共监测2000人.检出HCV阳性1039例,检出率52.0％,HCV感染率从201 1年的64.3％下降到2015年的35.0％ (X2=136.876,P=0.000).多因素分析结果表明与HCV感染有关的因素为年龄(OR=1.700,95％CI:1.463～1.975)、毒品类型(OR=0.510,95％CI:0.425～0.613)与注射毒品(OR=6.468,95％CI:4.600～9.095).结论 天津市吸毒人群HCV感染呈现下降趋势,但是总体来说感染水平较高,急需采取有效措施控制吸毒人群中HCV的感染.     

HIV暴露婴儿HBV感染状况研究

目的 调查HIV阳性母亲所生婴儿(HIV暴露婴儿)的HBV感染状况,间接评估该人群HBV疫苗免疫效果.方法 从我国HIV阳性母亲所生婴儿干血斑样本库中随机抽取106份HIV感染婴儿样本(HIV阳性组)、107份HIV未感染婴儿样本(HIV阴性组),采集100份HIV阴性母亲所生婴儿的全血制备成干血斑样本(HIV未暴露组).所有样本用Qiagen试剂盒进行HBV DNA检测.用Fisher精确概率法比较样本组间HBV感染率差异;HIV暴露组和我国1～4岁儿童HBV感染率的比较通过直接计算Poisson分布的累计概率进行假设检验.结果 HIV阳性组中HBV感染率是2.83％,阴性组和未暴露组中均未检测到HBV感染,三组间感染率差异无统计学意义.HIV暴露婴儿校正后HBV感染率为0.18％,不高于我国l～4岁儿童HBV感染率0.32％.结论 我国HIV暴露婴儿HBV感染率较低,HBV免疫策略实施效果良好,未受到HIV暴露的影响.     

肿瘤标记物联合检测对肿瘤高危人群筛查的临床意义

目的 研究应用肿瘤标记物联合检测对恶性肿瘤高危人群筛查的临床价值.方法 选择血清肿瘤标记物组合对3 766例恶性肿瘤高危人员进行检测,对肿瘤标记(CA125、CEA、Cyfra21-1、CA19-9、AFP、NSE、CA72-4、SCC、CA153)升高人员进一步行颈胸部CT、腹盆部CT或内窥镜检查,女性进行妇科检查,未明确诊断者进行长期随访(大于6个月).结果 经过随访,共发现肿瘤患者69例,其中发现肿瘤标志物升高6个月内诊断为恶性肿瘤20例(62.5％),6个月至1年诊断5例(15.6％),1年至2年诊断4例(12.5％),2年至3年诊断2例(9.4％).COX分析显示肿瘤标志物升高的程度(RR=2.308,95％ CI:2.517 ～2.475,P＜0.001)、肿瘤标志物逐渐升高(RR=7.727,95％ CI:3.008 ～ 19.836,P＜0.05)和有相关临床症状(RR=7.879,95％ CI:2.357 ～ 26.384,P＜0.05)是筛查肿瘤标志物升高人员患肿瘤的危险因素.结论 血清肿瘤标记物联合检测对肿瘤筛查人群应答率高,危险因素调查是肿瘤筛查的有效手段.     

HIV在人体体液和分泌物中的定量与传染性研究进展

截至2011年,全球有3420多万人感染人类免疫缺陷病毒(human immunoddficiency virus,HIV),通过母婴阻断、抗病毒治疗等措施可降低HIV的新发感染.2001年至2009年,全球每年艾滋病新发感染率逐渐降低[1].我国对抗HIV的工作也取得了一定成效,但目前的流行状况仍不容乐观,截止2011年底,我国累积报告的HIV感染和AIDS人数为44.5万,性传播比例呈逐年上升趋势,从2006年的33.1％上升到201 1年的76.3％[2],高危人群向普通人群传播的风险日益增加.另外,我国抗逆转录病毒治疗起步晚且治疗效果欠佳,耐药现象严重,报告指出我国有3个以上省市地区耐药率处于较高水平,甚至超过了30％[2].疫苗是预防传染病的重要手段,目前各国都有医疗队伍致力于HIV疫苗的研发,有数十种疫苗已进行或正在进行临床试验,2009年出现了首个有一定效果的艾滋病疫苗,可将人体感染HIV的风险降低31.2％[3],但开发出完全有效的疫苗仍需时日.     

人乳头瘤病毒、沙眼衣原体和单纯疱疹病毒Ⅱ型感染与宫颈疾病的相关性研究

目的 探讨人乳头瘤病毒(human papillomavirus,HPV)、沙眼衣原体(chlamydia trachomatis,CT)和单纯疱疹病毒Ⅱ型(herpes simplex virusⅡ,HSV-Ⅱ)感染与宫颈疾病的关系.方法 采用核酸分子快速杂交基因分型技术对598例宫颈脱落细胞进行HPV感染基因型分型测定,同时应用实时荧光定量PCR法(FQ-PCR)检测CT和HSV-Ⅱ两种病原体的感染情况.结果 HPV、CT和HSV-Ⅱ的阳性检出率分别为24.9％、9.2％和8.9％,且随着宫颈病变程度加重而逐渐增高,宫颈炎组和宫颈癌病变组三种病原体的感染率差异均有统计学意义.HPV感染以高危型为主(占77.9％),低危型为22.1％.HPV高危型和阴性组比较两种病毒的感染率有统计学差异(CT:x2=26.97,P＜0.05;HSV-Ⅱ∶x2=65.93,P＜0.05).各宫颈病变组均有多病毒混合感染情况出现,其中宫颈癌组混合感染率为22.2％.结论 HPV、CT和HSV-Ⅱ感染与宫颈癌的发生密切相关,多病原体混合感染会促进宫颈癌的发生.     

23296例女性宫颈高危型HPV感染情况分析

目的研究民航总医院就诊女性宫颈高危型人乳头瘤病毒(high risk-human papillomavirus,HR-HPV)感染情况及分型特点。为北京地区预防HPV感染和防治宫颈癌提供科学依据。方法选择2016年10月至2019年4月于民航总医院妇产科就诊并行高危型HPV检测的女性23296例,对其结果进行回顾性分析,分析高危型HPV感染情况,比较不同年龄组、不同亚型HPV感染情况。结果高危型HPV感染率为17.21%。其中单一HPV感染率13.00%,多重HPV感染率4.21%。HPV亚型感染率的前四位依次为HPV52型(感染率3.68%)、HPV16(感染率3.07%)、HPV58(感染率为3.04%)、HPV51(感染率1.89%)。HPV的感染率呈现反抛物线分布,在<20岁的女性中HPV的感染率最高,后逐渐下降,到30~45岁的感染率到达最低点,后逐渐升高,到>60岁到达第二高峰。结论1.本研究HPV感染率总体处于中等感染水平。2.<20岁人群是HPV感染的高危人群,建议在性生活前注射HPV疫苗,可以最有效的阻断HPV感染。3.应重视45岁后患者的HPV感染,尤其是持续性HPV感染,应积极行阴道镜检查,早期发现子宫颈上皮内瘤变及宫颈癌变。     

南京地区妊娠期妇女高危型人乳头瘤病毒感染率及其对妊娠结局的影响

目的 调查南京地区孕妇高危型人乳头瘤病毒及亚型感染率,并探讨其对于妊娠结局的影响.方法 选取2014年2月至2016年5月南京中医药大学附属中西医结合医院(江苏省中医药研究院)产科门诊建卡孕妇1557例,同时分别以2016年1月至6月健康体检人群85例、妇科门诊就诊的各类炎症疾病患者2062例为对照,比较各组人群HR-HPV及亚型感染率,以早产、胎膜早破两种常见不良妊娠为结局,探讨孕期HR-HPV感染对于妊娠结局的影响,并进一步分析HR-HPV不同基因型感染之间孕妇妊娠结局的差异.结果 ①妊娠组、疾病组及健康体检组HR-HPV感染率分别为12.91％、16.39％和11.76％,妊娠组HR-HPV感染率显著低于疾病组(P＜0.05),与健康体检组之间无差异(P＞0.05).妊娠组16、18亚型及其它12种HR-HPV亚型感染率分别为2.63％、0.64％和10.66％,18亚型及其它12种HR-HPV亚型感染率均显著低于疾病组(P＜0.05),而16亚型无显著性差异(P＞0.05).②HR-HPV感染孕妇不良妊娠结局发生率显著高于无HR-HPV感染孕妇(P＜0.05).③二元Logistic回归分析显示,HR-HPV感染是早产、胎膜早破两种常见不良妊娠结局的危险因素(OR:3.323,95％ CI:2.192～5.036,P＜0.001),而年龄、孕产次对妊娠结局没有影响(P＞0.05).④单一HR-HPV 16或18亚型、其它12种高危亚型及两种或两种以上高危亚型感染之间孕妇不良妊娠结局发生率无显著性差异(P＞0.05).结果 孕期HR-HPV感染是早产、胎膜早破两种常见不良妊娠结局的危险因子,因此做好孕前及妊娠期HR-HPV筛查和积极干预,有利于优生优育.     

High HIV sexual risk behaviors and sexually transmitted disease prevalence among injection drug users in Northern Vietnam: implications for a generalized HIV epidemic

BACKGROUND: HIV prevalence in Vietnam is currently concentrated among injection drug users (IDUs). The extent to which this core risk group represents a potential for broader HIV transmission to the general population is currently unknown. METHODS: A community-based cross-sectional study among IDUs in Vietnam assessed sexually transmitted disease (STD) prevalence and behavioral risk factors. Qualitative interview data enhanced quantitative findings. RESULTS: The prevalence of any STDs among 272 IDUs was 30% (chlamydia, 9%; herpes simplex virus type 2 [HSV-2], 22%; gonorrhea, 0%; and syphilis, 1%). Part-time work or unemployment (odds ratio [OR] = 2.74, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.1 to 6.9), sex with > or =2 sex workers in the past year (OR = 4.9, 95% CI: 1.91 to 12.6), having ever smoked heroin (OR = 4.5, 95% CI: 1.1 to 18.3), and injecting less frequently than daily (OR = 3.9, 95% CI: 1.43 to 10.6) were independently associated with chlamydial infection. Urban residency (OR = 4.0, 95% CI: 1.4 to 11.0) and daily injecting (OR = 2.2, 95% CI: 1.1 to 4.4) were independently associated with HSV-2. Odds of HSV-2 among older (> or =28 years of age) IDUs who had sex with <2 sex workers in the past year was higher than among younger IDUs who had sex with more sex workers (OR = 6.4, 95% CI: 2.1 to 18.4). CONCLUSIONS: High STD prevalence and high-risk sexual and parenteral behaviors among IDUs indicate the potential for HIV/STD transmission to the general Vietnamese population.     

Seroprevalence of herpes simplex virus type 1 and type 2 in selected German populations-relevance for the incidence of genital herpes

This study was carried out to determine the prevalence of antibodies to herpes simplex virus types 1 (HSV-1) and 2 (HSV-2) in selected German populations, such as blood donors, hospital patients, and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-seropositive individuals. Serum samples collected between 1996 and 1998 were tested by enzyme immunoassays using monoclonal antibody-selected native gG1 and gG2 as antigens and an immunoblot using type-specific recombinant glycoproteins. Equivocal results were resolved by an "in-house" Western blot assay. The prevalence of HSV-1 antibodies increased steadily with age and reached high levels of >/=88% among subjects 40 years of age or older. In the sample of patients and blood donors, the HSV-2 seroprevalence was 12.8% (95% CI = 11.9-13.8%). About 81% of the HSV-2 seropositive subjects were coinfected with HSV-1. When adjusted for age, there was no difference in the HSV-2 seroprevalence between hospital patients and blood donors. The HSV-2 seroprevalence was significantly higher among women (15%) than among men (10.5%), yielding a female : male odds ratio of 1.5 for hospital patients and of 1.67 for blood donors. Among the HIV-infected population, 91.1% were seropositive for HSV-1 and 47.9% for HSV-2. HIV-infected women have a significantly higher risk of HSV-2 infection than men (odds ratio [OR] = 3.22; 95% confidence ratio [CI] 1.99-5.20). In conclusion, although the rate of infections with HSV-2 is relatively low in the German population, attention should be given to the further development in adolescents, especially in view of a possible decrease of HSV-1 seroprevalence in childhood.     

Sero-prevalence of herpes simplex type 2 virus (HSV-2) and HIV infection in Kampala,Uganda

Background

Prevalence of herpes simplex type 2 virus (HSV-2) is high worldwide. Previous studies in Uganda were rural or in women. We estimated age and sex-specific sero-prevalence of HSV-2 in Kampala, Uganda.

Methods

Using two-stage random sampling stratified on population density, a survey of persons 15–65 years was conducted. Type-specific serological tests for HSV-2, HSV-1(HerpeSelect2 and 1 ELISA), HIV (Rapid tests and ELISA), syphilis (RPR and TPHA) were done. Additional prevalence analysis included post-stratification weighting on the Uganda 2002 Census gender distribution.

Results

Among 1124 persons, HSV-2 prevalence was 58% (95% CI: 55, 60), HSV-1; 98% (95% CI: 97.6, 99.1), HIV; 17.7% (95% CI: 14.8, 19.2) and syphilis; 1.7% (95% CI: 1.4, 1.9). Weighted HSV-2 prevalence was 53.8% (Women; 63.8%, men; 43.2%), similar to unweighted data. Weighted HIV prevalence was 20.7% in women, 8.6% in men. Of 165 HIV infected persons, 85.4% had HSV-2. Risk factors for HSV-2 were being a woman (OR 2.0; 95% CI: 1.42, 2.78), age (OR 3.3; 95% CI: 2.43, 4.53), education (OR 1.70; 95% CI: 1.34, 2.34) and HIV (OR 4.5; 95% CI: 2.70, 7.50).

Conclusion

Prevalence of HSV-2 and HIV was high especially in women. Syphilis was rare. Awareness of herpes was low. Interventions in young people are needed.     

Seroprevalence and determinants of herpes simplex type 2 infection in an STD clinic in Milan,Italy

A number of studies have shown that the seroprevalence of herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) is higher among persons attending clinics for sexually transmitted diseases (STD) than among the general population. The HSV-2 seroprevalence among STD patients, however, varies greatly among studies, possibly reflecting differences in the baseline prevalence of the infection among different general populations or in the distribution of risk factors. A cross-sectional study was carried out to determine the seroprevalence of and the risk factors for HSV-2 infection among 776 HIV-negative persons attending an STD clinic in Milan, Italy. All samples were tested with a commercial HSV type-2 specific gG ELISA test. The HSV-2 seroprevalence was 29.5% (95% CI: 26.3-32.7%). The seroprevalence increased with age, yet it did not differ by gender. Among persons with a current STD, the seroprevalence was 44.3%. At the multivariate analysis, older age was independently associated with HSV-2 infection. A self-reported history of genital herpes was predictive of HSV-2 infection. The agreement between history of genital herpes and HSV-2 seroprevalence was poor, however, stressing that in clinical practice, caution should be used in interpreting the presence or absence of a history of genital herpes as an indicator of the presence or absence of HSV-2 infection. Our data show that HSV-2 seroprevalence among persons attending an STD clinic in Italy is high; thus serological screening for HSV-2 might be advisable for STD patients.     

Is sexual transmission an important pattern for herpes simplex type 2 virus seroconversion in the Spanish general population?

Herpes simplex type 2 (HSV-2) seroprevalence within a community is determined by sexual and perinatal transmission from mother to baby, the two main sources of virus shedding. A seroepidemiological study of HSV-2 was undertaken on a representative sample (n = 3974) of the Spanish population to assess indirectly the relative relevance of these two transmission routes. The sample comprised 1922 men and 2052 women in the age range 5-59 years, stratified by sex and age (5-12, 13-19, 20-29, 30-39, 40-49, and 50-59 years). Sera were screened for HSV-2 specific Ig G antibodies by an enzyme-linked immunoabsorbent assay based on recombinant glycoprotein G2 (gG2). The overall prevalence of antibodies to HSV-2 was 3.6% (95% CI: 3. 1-4.2%). Prevalence by gender did not differ: males (3.6%; 95% CI: 2. 8-4.6%) and females (3.6%; 95% CI: 2.8-4.5%). There were no significant differences between age groups with respect to seropositivity rates. Detection of HSV-2 antibodies was not associated with increasing age, as is expected for a sexually transmitted disease. The fact that seroprevalence rates among the different age groups did not differ suggests that the virus is not circulating in the general population and may be restricted to risk groups only. Similar positivity rates found in the group of females of childbearing age and in the youngest population indicate that perinatal viral shedding is the main source of HSV-2 seroconversion in the Spanish population.     

Risk factors for herpes simplex virus type 2 and HIV among women at high risk in northwestern Tanzania: preparing for an HSV-2 intervention trial

OBJECTIVES: To determine prevalence of and risk factors for herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) and HIV among women being screened for a randomized, controlled trial of HSV suppressive therapy in northwestern Tanzania. METHODS: Two thousand seven hundred nineteen female facility workers aged 16 to 35 were interviewed and underwent serological testing for HIV and HSV-2. Factors associated with HSV-2 and HIV in women aged 16 to 24 were examined using logistic regression to estimate odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI). RESULTS: HSV-2 seroprevalence was 80%, and HIV seroprevalence was 30%. Among women aged 16 to 24, both infections were significantly and independently associated with older age, being a bar worker, working at a truck stop, and having more lifetime sexual partners. HSV-2 infection was also associated with lower socioeconomic status, increased alcohol intake, younger age at first sex, inconsistent condom use, and vaginal douching. There was a strong association between the 2 infections after adjustment for other factors (OR = 4.22, 95% CI: 2.6 to 6.9). CONCLUSIONS: Female facility workers in northwestern Tanzania are vulnerable to HSV-2 and HIV infections. Programs designed to increase safer sexual behavior and reduce alcohol use could be effective in reducing HSV-2 incidence and, in turn, HIV infection. This is a suitable population for an HSV suppressive therapy trial.     

Seroprevalence of HIV, syphilis, and hepatitis C virus in the general population of the Liangshan Prefecture, Sichuan Province, China

This study aimed at understanding the HIV prevalence, distribution of HIV risk factors and whether the HIV has spread from high‐risk groups to the general population in the Yanyuan and Muli counties, Liangshan Prefecture, Sichuan Province, China. A multistage probability method was used to select a representative sample of villages in each county, with stratification by risk employed in the sampling for the Yanyuan county. A real‐name registration and confidential method were adopted to collect the information of the participants. Blood specimens were tested for HIV, syphilis, and hepatitis C virus. A total of 4,950 subjects participated in the study. Of the participants aged ≥ 15 years, 0.12% self‐reported being drug users and 40% were injection drug users; 0.46% had multiple sex partners and the condom use rate was only 26.3% during the last sexual intercourse. HIV, syphilis, and HCV prevalence of Yanyuan county were 0.06% (95% CI: 0–0.142), 0.06% (95% CI: 0–0.142), and 0.15% (95% CI: 0.020–0.280), respectively. HCV prevalence of Muli county was 0.06% (95% CI: 0–0.191), and none was found to be HIV or syphilis positive. Therefore, the rate of HIV infection in Yanyuan and Muli counties is at a low level currently. The Yanyuan county HIV infection rate is similar to the average rate in all of China, and the Muli county rate is below China's average. The HIV epidemic has not spread from high‐risk groups to the general population in these two counties. J. Med. Virol. 84:1–5, 2011. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

HIV-1 prevalence and herpes simplex virus 2, hepatitis C virus,and hepatitis B virus infections among male workers at a sugar estate in Malawi

HIV-1 prevalence is approximately 23% among men working at a sugar estate in Malawi. Given the scale of the HIV epidemic in this country, it is important to determine possible cofactors of infection. The authors investigated associations between HIV-1 prevalence and herpes simplex virus 2 (HSV-2), hepatitis C virus (HCV), and hepatitis B virus (HBV) infections (indicated by anti-HSV-2, anti-HCV and HBsAg positivity, respectively) in a nested case-control study of 279 HIV-positive and 280 HIV-negative male workers. The prevalence of HSV-2 infection was 88.1% among HIV-positive persons and 64.3% among HIV-negative control subjects (p <.01). This difference persisted after adjusting for sexual behavior and history of sexually transmitted diseases (OR = 4.12; 95% CI, 2.21-7.68). The prevalence of HCV seropositivity was 12.7% among HIV-positive persons and 10.0% among control subjects (p =.31), whereas that of HBV infection was 16.9% among HIV-positive persons and 14.4% among control subjects (p =.46). HSV-2 infection is significantly associated with prevalent HIV-1 infection in this population. Therefore, preventive measures for HSV-2 and HIV infection should be emphasized.     

Epidemiology of herpes simplex virus type 2 infection in the developing world

Herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) is a common infection in many countries, with prevalence in some regions, such as sub-Saharan Africa, higher than in the USA. Prevalence in adult general populations in sub-Saharan Africa ranges from 30% to 80% in women, and from 10% to 50% in men. Most data from Central and South America are from women, in whom HSV-2 prevalence ranges from about 20% to 40%. Prevalence in the general population in developing Asian countries appears to be lower (10-30%). In common with the developed world, HSV-2 seropositivity is uniformly higher in women than in men and increases with age. In general, HSV-2 seroprevalence is high in populations whose behaviour leads to a high risk of acquiring other sexually transmitted infections (STIs), such as STI clinic attendees and sex workers (SWs), with some African studies reporting greater than 80% HSV seropositivity in SWs. New infections are most common among young adults, a fact that should be considered when proposing and implementing measures to reduce HSV, and possibly HIV, transmission. Currently, comparison between studies is hampered by the lack of a validated type-specific serological assay that has a similar performance across a range of populations. HSV-2 is a major cause of genital ulcer disease (GUD) in the developing world. Genital herpes is a cause of morbidity and increases the risk of HIV acquisition, due to disruption of mucosal membranes. Where possible, the aetiology of GUD should be evaluated using polymerase chain reaction (PCR), while recognizing that co-pathogens can exist in a lesion. GUD management should incorporate HIV testing and antiherpetic treatment.     

Prevalence and risk factors for viral hepatitis in the Kosovarian population: implications for health policy

The prevalence of hepatitis infection among the Kosovarian population is largely unknown. The aim of the study was to evaluate the prevalence and risk factors of hepatitis A, B, C, and D (HAV, HBV, HCV, HDV) infection among the general population and in a group of health care workers in the Kosovo region. Overall, 1,287 participants were recruited, 460 males (36%) and 827 females (64%). Health care workers accounted for 253 individuals (20%), 301 were blood donor candidates (23%), 334 were pregnant women (26%), and 399 (31%) were subjects who had been examined in two clinics for routine laboratory testing. The prevalence of total anti-HAV was 88.6% (95% CI: 86.69-90.25). Prevalence of anti-HAV among children up to 10 years was 40.5% (95% CI: 29.6-53.15), reaching 70% (95% CI: 62.25-77.10) in the 11-20 age group. Age, living in rural areas and unemployment were factors associated with higher risk of HAV infection. HBsAg was detected in 2.4% (95% CI: 1.57-3.38%) of the study sample, with a significant age trend (P-value:0.0110). Positivity for total anti-HBc was detected in 18.4% (95% CI = 16.27-20.59) of the subjects. Ninety-three subjects (7.2%) were positive for anti-HBs alone. An association between age, HSV-2 positivity, working nurses and HBV infection has been observed. One patient was HDV positive. The prevalence for HCV was 0.5% (95% CI: 0.22-1.12%). HAV infection seems to be high-intermediate, while HBV shows an intermediate endemicity. It is necessary to highlight the importance of an immunization strategy against HAV and HBV in reducing the incidence of the infection. The prevalence for HCV was very low.