Health effects of low level radiation: Carcinogenesis, teratogenesis, and mutagenesis |
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| Authors: | E. Russell Ritenour |
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| Affiliation: | 1. Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Institute of Radiation Protection, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 86457 Neuherberg, Germany;2. Department of Physics, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria;1. Institut Cochin, INSERM U1016, Université Paris Descartes, Paris, France;2. Department of Obstetrics, University Medical Centre Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands;3. School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, University of São Paulo, Brazil;4. Faculté de Pharmacie de Paris, Université Paris Descartes, Paris, France;5. CHU Clermont-Ferrand, Pôle Gynéco-Obstétrique-Reproduction Humaine, CHU Estaing, Clermont-Ferrand, France;6. Université d''Auvergne, Faculté de Médecine, Clermont-Ferrand, France;7. Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA;8. Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA;9. Comparative Physiology Laboratory, INIA, Madrid, Spain;10. AP-HP, INSERM – Université Paris Descartes, Paris, France;11. Maternal and Fetal Health Research Centre, Institute of Human Development, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK;12. St. Mary''s Hospital, Central Manchester University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, Manchester, UK;13. Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Texas-San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA;14. Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK;15. School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, USA;p. Imprinting and Cancer Group, Cancer Epigenetic and Biology Program, Institut d''Investigació Biomedica de Bellvitge, Hospital Duran i Reynals, Barcelona, Spain;q. Murdoch Childrens Research Institute, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia;r. VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands;s. Department of Pathology, Sanford Consortium for Regenerative Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA;t. INRA, UMR1198 Developmental Biology and Reproduction, Jouy en Josas, France;u. Department of Anatomy, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Germany;v. WIH, Division of Perinatal Pathology, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA;w. Robinson Research Institute, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia;x. Department of Medical Genetics, University of British Columbia, Canada;y. Child & Family Research Institute, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada;z. University of Queensland Centre for Clinical Research, Centre for Clinical Diagnostics, Royal Brisbane and Women''s Hospital, Brisbane, Australia;11. Global Alliance to Prevent Prematurity and Stillbirth (GAPPS), Seattle Children''s, WA, USA;12. Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Oslo University Hospital and University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway;13. Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA;14. Fondation PremUp, Paris, France;15. Rowett Institute of Nutrition and Health, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK;16. INRS-Institut Armand-Frappier and BioMed Research Center, Laval University, Québec, Canada;17. Reproductive and Vascular Biology Group, Institute of Cellular Medicine, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK;1. Radiation Dosimetry Team, Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute, 989-111 Daedeok-daero, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, 34057, Republic of Korea;2. Department of Nuclear Engineering, Hanyang University, 222, Wangsimni-ro, Seongdong-gu, Seoul, 04763, Republic of Korea;1. IRSN - Institut de Radioprotection et de Sûreté Nucléaire, BP17, 92262 Fontenay-aux-Roses Cedex, France;2. IRAMAT-CRP2A, Université Bordeaux Montaigne, Maison de l’Archéologie, 33607 Pessac Cedex, France |
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| Abstract: | The carcinogenic effects of radiation have been demonstrated at high dose levels. At low dose levels, such as those encountered in medical diagnosis, the magnitude of the effect is more difficult to quantify. Three reasons for this difficulty are (1) the effects in human populations are small compared with the natural incidence of cancer in the populations; (2) it is difficult to transfer results obtained in animal studies to the human experience; and (3) the effects of latency period and plateau increase the complexity of population studies. In spite of these difficulties, epidemiologic studies of human populations exposed to low levels of radiation still play a valuable role in the determination of radiation carcinogenecity. They serve to provide upper estimates of risk and to rule out the appearance of new effects that may be masked by the effects of high doses. While there is evidence for mutagenic effects of radiation in experimental animals, no conclusive human data exist at the present. It is not possible to rule out the presence of genetic effects of radiation in humans, however, because many problems exist with regard to the epidemiologic detection of small effects when the natural incidence is relatively large. In animals, subtle effects (eg, a decrease in the probability of survival from egg to adult) may occur with greater frequency than more dramatic disorders in irradiated populations. However, these types of genetic abnormalities are difficult to quantitate. Current risk estimates are based primarily upon data pertaining to dominant mutations in rodents. Some specific locus studies also permit identification of recessive mutation rates. The embryo and fetus are considered to be at greater risk for adverse effects of radiation than is the adult. This sensitivity was predicted in 1906 by the law of Bergonie and Tribondeau and has been demonstrated in human and animal populations. At high dose levels (above 15 rem), the effects of radiation depend upon the gestational stage at which irradiation occurs. Prior to the second week, the predominant effect is preimplantation death, while during the period of major organogenesis (second to sixth week), growth retardation and CNS abnormalities may be produced. These effects have not been demonstrated with a high degree of statistical significance at low dose levels (below 15 rem) and are not considered to present a serious hazard for patients undergoing radiologic exams. |
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