Coupled Ca2+/H+ transport by cytoplasmic buffers regulates local Ca2+ and H+ ion signaling

Ca²⁺ signaling regulates cell function. This is subject to modulation by H⁺ ions that are universal end-products of metabolism. Due to slow diffusion and common buffers, changes in cytoplasmic Ca²⁺] (Ca²⁺]_i) or H⁺] (H⁺]_i) can become compartmentalized, leading potentially to complex spatial Ca²⁺/H⁺ coupling. This was studied by fluorescence imaging of cardiac myocytes. An increase in H⁺]_i, produced by superfusion of acetate (salt of membrane-permeant weak acid), evoked a Ca²⁺]_i rise, independent of sarcolemmal Ca²⁺ influx or release from mitochondria, sarcoplasmic reticulum, or acidic stores. Photolytic H⁺ uncaging from 2-nitrobenzaldehyde also raised Ca²⁺]_i, and the yield was reduced following inhibition of glycolysis or mitochondrial respiration. H⁺ uncaging into buffer mixtures in vitro demonstrated that Ca²⁺ unloading from proteins, histidyl dipeptides (HDPs; e.g., carnosine), and ATP can underlie the H⁺-evoked Ca²⁺]_i rise. Raising H⁺]_i tonically at one end of a myocyte evoked a local Ca²⁺]_i rise in the acidic microdomain, which did not dissipate. The result is consistent with uphill Ca²⁺ transport into the acidic zone via Ca²⁺/H⁺ exchange on diffusible HDPs and ATP molecules, energized by the H⁺]_i gradient. Ca²⁺ recruitment to a localized acid microdomain was greatly reduced during intracellular Mg²⁺ overload or by ATP depletion, maneuvers that reduce the Ca²⁺-carrying capacity of HDPs. Cytoplasmic HDPs and ATP underlie spatial Ca²⁺/H⁺ coupling in the cardiac myocyte by providing ion exchange and transport on common buffer sites. Given the abundance of cellular HDPs and ATP, spatial Ca²⁺/H⁺ coupling is likely to be of general importance in cell signaling.Most cells are exquisitely responsive to calcium (Ca²⁺) (1) and hydrogen (H⁺) ions (i.e., pH) (2). In cardiac myocytes, Ca²⁺ ions trigger contraction and control growth and development (3), whereas H⁺ ions, which are generated or consumed metabolically, are potent modulators of essentially all biological processes (4). By acting on Ca²⁺-handling proteins directly or via other molecules, H⁺ ions exert both inhibitory and excitatory effects on Ca²⁺ signaling. For example, in the ventricular myocyte, H⁺ ions can reduce Ca²⁺ release from sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) stores, through inhibition of the SR Ca²⁺ ATPase (SERCA) pump and ryanodine receptor (RyR) Ca²⁺ channels (5, 6). In contrast, H⁺ ions can enhance SR Ca²⁺ release by stimulating sarcolemmal Na⁺/H⁺ exchange (NHE), which raises intracellular Na⁺] and reduces the driving force for Ca²⁺ extrusion on Na⁺/Ca²⁺ exchange (NCX), leading to cellular retention of Ca²⁺ (7, 8). Ca²⁺ signaling is thus subservient to pH.Cytoplasmic Ca²⁺ and H⁺ ions bind avidly to buffer molecules, such that <1% of all Ca²⁺ ions and <0.001% of all H⁺ ions are free. Some of these buffers bind H⁺ and Ca²⁺ ions competitively, and this has been proposed to be one mechanism underlying cytoplasmic Ca²⁺/H⁺ coupling (9). Reversible binding to buffers greatly reduces the effective mobility of Ca²⁺ and H⁺ ions in cytoplasm (10, 11) and can allow for highly compartmentalized ionic microdomains, and hence a spatially heterogeneous regulation of cell function. In cardiac myocytes under resting (diastolic) conditions, the cytoplasm-averaged concentration of free Ca²⁺] (Ca²⁺]_i) and H⁺] (H⁺]_i) ions is kept near 10⁻⁷ M by membrane transporter proteins. Thus, H⁺]_i is regulated by the balance of flux among acid-extruding and acid-loading transporter proteins at the sarcolemma e.g., NHE and Cl⁻/OH⁻ (CHE) exchangers, respectively] (4). Similarly, the activity of SERCA and NCX proteins returns Ca²⁺]_i to its diastolic level after evoked signaling events (3, 12). Despite these regulatory mechanisms, cytoplasmic gradients of H⁺]_i and Ca²⁺]_i do occur in myocytes and are an important part of their physiology. Gradients arise from local differences in transmembrane fluxes that alter H⁺]_i or Ca²⁺]_i. For example, spatial H⁺]_i gradients are produced when NHE transporters, expressed mainly at the intercalated disk region, are activated (4, 13) or when membrane-permeant weak acids, such as CO₂, are presented locally (14). Similarly, release of Ca²⁺ through a cluster of RyR channels in the SR produces Ca²⁺]_i nonuniformity in the form of Ca²⁺ sparks (15). Given the propensity of cytoplasm to develop ionic gradients, it is important to understand their underlying mechanism and functional role.The present work demonstrates a distinct form of spatial interaction between Ca²⁺ and H⁺ ions. We show that cytoplasmic H⁺] gradients can produce stable Ca²⁺]_i gradients, and vice versa, and that this interaction is mediated by low-molecular-weight (mobile) buffers with affinity for both ions. We demonstrate that the diffusive counterflux of H⁺ and Ca²⁺ bound to these buffers comprises a cytoplasmic Ca²⁺/H⁺ exchanger. This acts like a “pump” without a membrane, which can, for instance, recruit Ca²⁺ to acidic cellular microdomains. Cytoplasmic Ca²⁺/H⁺ exchange adds a spatial paradigm to our understanding of Ca²⁺ and H⁺ ion signaling.