Visual Inspection with Acetic Acid (VIA) Screening Program: 7 Years Experience in Early Detection of Cervical Cancer and Pre-Cancers in Rural South India

Cervical cancer continues to be a major public health problem in India in the absence of wide spread organised cervical screening programs. Visual inspection of the cervix with acetic acid (VIA) is an effective, inexpensive screening test that can be combined with simple treatment procedures for early cervical lesions, provided by trained health workers. We report 7 years experience in early detection of cervical cancer and pre-cancers using the VIA test in a community-based program in rural Andhra Pradesh, India where there are no existing organised cervical screening programs.

Materials and Methods:

Eligible women aged between 26 and 60 were opportunistically screened by trained health wor kers using the VIA test. Women who tested positive were further evaluated and those with cervical lesions were treated either by cryotherapy in the screening clinic or referred to a higher center.

Results:

A total of 18,869 women were screened by a single round of VIA testing with a positive rate of 10.75%. Biopsy proven high-grade squamous intraepithelials (HSILs) were 90 (0.48%) and low-grade squamous intraepithelials (LSILs) were 43 (0.28%). The overall prevalence of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) 2+ lesion rate is 1.05%. A total of 312 (1.65%) cryotherapies were done and 49 women underwent hysterectomy.

Conclusions:

VIA by trained female health workers is a safe, acceptable, and effective test that can save lives from cervical cancer even in remote areas with few resources. These results have important implications for efficient service delivery in cervical screening programs in low-resourced settings.     

醋酸染色和碘染色后肉眼观察在宫颈病变筛查中的应用价值

目的评价醋酸染色和碘染色在宫颈癌及其癌前病变的筛查中的应用价值。为降低经济欠发达地区的宫颈癌的发病率和死亡率提供依据。方法 2009年5月对来我院就诊的的30～59岁已婚妇女进行宫颈病变的普查。普查方法为用5%醋酸染色后肉眼观察（VIA）和2%碘染色后肉眼观察（VILI）,结果异常者进行阴道镜检查,并在阴道镜下活检取得最终病理诊断。结果 1897名附和条件的妇女参加普查,其中265例VIA或VILI阳性,176例行阴道镜下活检,经病理确诊CIN以上44例,其中CINⅠ25例,CINⅡ8例,CINⅢ及原位癌8例,早期浸润癌1例,宫颈癌2例。结论 VIA和VILI是一种经济有效的筛查方法,适用于在经济欠发达地区广泛推广。     

Evaluation of downstaging in the detection of cervical neoplasia in Kolkata,India

Unaided visual inspection or "downstaging" has been suggested as a potential alternative method for cervical cancer screening in developing countries. Our study was designed to evaluate the accuracy of downstaging to detect cervical neoplasia in a low-resource setting. A total of 6,399 women aged 30-64 years were screened with downstaging by trained nonmedical health workers. Two thresholds were used to define positive downstaging: "low threshold" when any visible abnormality on the cervix was considered positive and "high threshold" when selected abnormalities such as bleeding on touch, bleeding erosion, hypertrophied oedematous cervix, congested stippled cervix and growth or ulcer constituted the positive test. All women underwent a colposcopy examination. Biopsies were directed when colposcopy revealed abnormal lesions. True disease status was defined as histologically proven moderate dysplasia and worse lesions. Since all the participants received a diagnostic (reference) investigation (biopsy and/or colposcopy), sensitivity, specificity and predictive values were estimated directly. Low- and high-threshold downstaging were positive in 1,585 (24.8%) and 460 (7.2%) women, respectively. The sensitivities of low- and high-threshold downstaging to detect high-grade precursors and invasive cancers were 48.9% and 31.9%, respectively. The specificities were 75.8% and 93.3%, respectively. These results indicate that downstaging is not suitable as an independent primary screening modality for cervical neoplasia.     

Development of a visual inspection programme for cervical cancer prevention in Bangladesh

Cervical cancer is the most common reproductive cancer in women in Bangladesh, and most women come for diagnosis and treatment when it is too late. To support early detection of pre-cancerous conditions and prevent cervical cancer, Bangladesh undertook a screening programme using visual inspection of the cervix with acetic acid (VIA) and cryotherapy through a public sector programme. The programme was launched in 2004−05 in a phased manner, starting with a pilot programme in 16 of the 64 districts in the country and scaled up to 44 districts as of the end of 2007. Evaluation of the pilot programme's performance showed that VIA can be carried out by trained doctors, nurses, and paramedical workers in Bangladesh, even though the level of resources is poor, and women, their partners and families are often not aware of the disease and its consequences. The programme now needs to move from opportunistic screening to population-based, systematic screening of women over age 30. More providers need to be trained, and clinics better equipped. The links between screening, diagnosis and treatment need to be improved and the false-positive rate of VIA tests greatly reduced. It is only when we have achieved high coverage that reduced rates of cancer can be ensured.     

内蒙古地区醋酸／碘染色法筛查子宫颈癌的结果分析

目的：评价基层医生采用醋酸碘染色法（VIA／VILI）在农牧区筛查子宫颈癌及其癌前病变的效果。方法：采用醋酸（VIA）和碘染色法（VILI）在内蒙古鄂尔多斯市乌审旗、兴安盟科右中旗、通辽市科左后旗蒙古族聚居为主的农村牧区对30,59岁妇女人群进行宫颈病变的筛查,对VIA或VILI阳性者进行阴道镜检查,阴道镜检查异常者在病变处取活检进行病理学诊断。采用同样的程序对人群进行复查,通过比较1年筛查与连续2年筛查的结果,评价该方案的筛查效果。采用SPSS13．0软件进行统计分析,包括x2检验,t检验。结果：2008～2009年期间对6002人连续筛查了2年,第1轮（6002）与第2轮（4609人）筛查CIN1、CIN2、CIN3及子宫颈癌的检出率分别为0．92％、0．15％、0．07％、0．1％和0．43％、0．17％、0.02％、0。同样2009—2010年期间对6008例人群连续筛查了2年,第1轮（6008人）与第2轮（4459人）筛查对于CIN1、CIN2、CIN3及子宫颈癌的检出率分别为0．52％、0.23％、0.03％、0.12％和0．18％、0．02％、0、0。2008—2010年期间筛查全部人群（12010）的CIN1、CIN2、CIN3和子宫颈癌的累计检出率分别为0.95％、0.27％、0.06％和0.11％,其中75．44％的CIN1、72．88％的CIN2、85．71％的CIN3和100％的子宫颈癌是通过初次筛查发现的,累计检出宫颈癌及宫颈上皮内瘤变166人,患病率1．38％。结论：宫颈癌的筛查重点应放在内蒙古西部地区,在经济欠发达的农村牧区,由经过培训的基层医生用VIA／VILI方法开展宫颈癌及癌前病变的筛查是可行的。     

Effectiveness of a two‐stage strategy with HPV testing followed by visual inspection with acetic acid for cervical cancer screening in a low‐income setting

The World Health Organization recently advocated a two‐stage strategy with human papillomavirus (HPV) testing followed by visual inspection of the cervix with acetic acid (VIA) as a suitable option for cervical cancer screening. However, its accuracy has never been directly assessed in the context of primary screening. To evaluate effectiveness of HPV testing on self‐obtained specimens (self‐HPV) followed by VIA (sequential testing) in a low‐income setting, we recruited 540 women aged between 30 and 65 years in two Cameroonian periurban areas. Eligible women were counseled about cervical cancer and how to perform self‐sampling. HPV positive and a random sample of HPV‐negative women were called back for VIA and biopsy. Disease was defined by interpretation of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia Grade 2 or worse (CIN2+). Performances of VIA, self‐HPV and sequential testing were determined after adjustment for verification bias. HPV prevalence was 27.0%. VIA positivity was 12.9% and disease prevalence was 5%. Sensitivity and specificity of VIA for CIN2+ were 36.4% [95% confidence interval (CI): 15.2–64.6%] and 90.4% (95% CI: 85.4–93.7%), respectively. Sensitivity of self‐HPV [100.0% (95% CI: 79.6–100.0%)] was 66% higher than that of sequential testing [33.3% (95% CI: 15.2–58.3%)]. Meanwhile, specificity of self‐HPV [74.5% (95% CI: 70.6–78.1%)] was 22% lower than that of sequential testing [96.7% (95% CI: 94.8–97.9%)]. A two‐stage screening strategy with self‐HPV followed by VIA improves specificity of cervical cancer screening, but at the cost of an important loss of sensitivity. Ways to improve VIA performance or other tools are needed to increase positive predictive value of HPV testing.     

The histopathologic patterns of cervical lesions and visual inspection with acetic acid on excised uterine cervices

The histologic patterns of cervical lesions as detected by visual inspection of the cervix with acetic acid (VIA) method were studied in 162 excised uterine cervices. There were 103 cervices of previous histologically confirmed cervical neoplasia treated by loop electrosurgical excision procedure (LEEP) or hysterectomy (group 1) and 59 cervices of hysterectomy specimens without known cervical pathology (group 2). Each freshly received cervix was examined with naked eye, photographed, 4% acetic acid applied, and then reexamined with naked eye for any color changes. Then it was rephotographed, divided spatially into 12 segments like on a face of a clock, processed to produce hematoxylin and eosin-stained glass slides, and histologically examined. The raised dull white changes, positive VIA, were highly correlated with the higher grade of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) (CIN 2 + CIN 3). In group 1, the sensitivity of the acetic acid in detecting high-grade CIN was 98.6%, the specificity was 82.4%, the positive predictive value was 91.9%, and the negative predictive value was 96.6%. The flat white changes, negative VIA, were mostly correlated with CIN 1-koilocytosis. This study found that the validity of the VIA technique in detecting high-grade CIN was acceptable.     

Intérêt du test HPV dans le dépistage primaire du cancer du col en milieu rural à Madagascar

Background

Testing for high-risk human papilloma virus (HR-HPV) is an effective approach to the prevention of cervical cancer. This study in the Atsinanana area of Madagascar aimed to compare the management of women screened by visual inspection after coloration with acetic acid (VIA) and the management of women screened by HPV with VIA as a triage test.

VIA在女职工体检中的应用

[目的]评价在女职工体检中采用醋酸肉眼观察法(VIA)的筛查宫颈病变的效果。[方法]对737位女职工进行妇科检查,同时采用VIA及巴氏涂片法进行宫颈病变的筛查,评价两种方法的宫颈病变检出率。[结果]参检率为75.20%(737/980),参检妇女关于癌症的知晓率为62.5%;宫颈癌的筛查方法的知晓率为42.5%,其中宫颈细胞学检查知晓率为36.5%;人乳头瘤病毒知晓率为19%;CINII级以上病变的检出率VIA法为0.54%(4/737);巴氏涂片法为0,两种检查方法比较差异有统计学意义(P﹤0.05)。[结论]大多数妇女对宫颈癌症的防治知识了解甚少,需加强知识的普及;应用VIA联合巴氏涂片法进行宫颈癌的初筛可进一步提高癌前病变的检出率。     

VIA—VILI肉眼观察法用于经济欠发达地区宫颈病变诊断价值的研究

目的：探讨VIA—VILI肉眼观察法用于贫困山区宫颈病变诊断中的临床价值。方法：对2007年7月至2009年1月在怀化市第三人民医院就诊的11200名就诊患者中进行醋酸肉眼观察法VIA5600名及复方碘染色肉眼观察法VILI5600名,对发现异常的患者进行阴道镜病理检查。结果：5600名肉眼观察患者中检出VIA阳性者291例（5．19％）,其中,180例阴道镜病理检查为CINⅡ者20例,CINⅢ级或以上者8例,VILI阳性者281例（5．01％）,其中177名阴道镜病理检查为CINⅡ级者19例,CIN Ⅱ级者或以上者8例,发现VIA对CINII和CINⅢ级以上的检测敏感度为79％-83％．VILI的敏感度为85％和84％．结论：VIA VILI肉眼观察法适用于筛查和诊断子宫颈癌前病变的可靠手段,因此特别是对经济欠发达地区,往往没有细胞学诊断的医生,缺乏薄层液基细胞学和HPV检测的设备和技术。综合考虑设备需求和经济条件等原因,VIA和VILI是简单,便宜,技术含量低的筛查方法①。