Development of behavioral sensitization to the cocaine-like fungicide triadimefon is prevented by AMPA, NMDa, DA D1 but not DA D2 receptor antagonists.

Triadimefon (TDF) is a triazole fungicide that blocks the reuptake of dopamine (DA) and leads to increased locomotor activity levels in mice and rats, effects similar to those of indirect DA agonists such as cocaine. We recently found in mice that intermittent TDF administration led to robust locomotor sensitization, a phenomenon reflecting neuronal plasticity, following challenge with the same TDF dose after a 2-week withdrawal period. The current study sought to determine whether antagonists to DA D1-like receptors (SCH 23390; SCH), DA D2-like receptors (remoxipride; Rem), ionotropic glutamate n-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptors (CPP), or ionotropic glutamate alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA) receptors (NBQX) could prevent the development of TDF behavioral sensitization, therefore indicating their mechanistic involvement in TDF sensitization. Mice were treated with either vehicle, SCH (0.015 mg/kg), remoxipride (Rem, 0.3 mg/kg), CPP (2.5 mg/kg) or NBQX (10.0 mg/kg), followed 30 min later by vehicle or 75 mg/kg TDF (TDF), twice a week for 7 weeks, with locomotor activity measured post-dosing once a week. After a 2-week withdrawal period, mice were challenged with 75 mg/kg TDF or vehicle, to test for the presence of behavioral sensitization. Pretreatment with SCH, CPP, or NBQX, but not Rem, blocked the development of behavioral sensitization to TDF specifically for vertical activity. Antagonists that blocked TDF vertical sensitization also attenuated the increase in extracellular DA turnover (homovanillic acid [HVA]/DA) normally associated with this behavioral response. Therefore, DA D1, NMDA and AMPA receptors appear to be necessary for the development of behavioral sensitization to TDF. As such, TDF may be considered an environmental risk factor for behavioral dysfunctions linked to glutamatergic and dopaminergic systems.     

三唑酮及其代谢产物在人参中的残留分析方法研究

目的 建立凝胶渗透色谱(GPC)和活性炭固相萃取柱(ENVI-Carb-SPE)结合的方法对样品进行净化处理,采用气相色谱.负化学电离源质谱联用(GC-NCIMS)的方法分析人参根及茎叶中三唑酮及其代谢产物三唑醇A、三唑醇B残留量的方法.方法 样品以丙酮为提取溶剂超声提取,并采用凝胶渗透色谱(GPC)和活性炭固相萃取柱(ENVI-Carb-SPE)～合的方法进行样品的净化,DB-5MS毛细管柱程序升温分离.采用气质联用负化学电离源(NCI)SIM方式检测.以空白样品提取液配制对照品溶液,以克服基质效应,外标法测定.结果 3种农药在10min内完全分离,根及茎叶样品在3个水平添加回收率在90%～105%,均小于6%(n=6),三唑酮和三唑醇的检测限分别为0.1和10μg/L,仪器进样精密度均小于2%(n=6).结论 本方法简便、快速、灵敏度高,适用于人参中三唑酮和三唑醇农药残留量测定与安全监控.     

Inhibition of Rat and Human Steroidogenesis by Triazole Antifungals

Environmental chemicals that alter steroid production could interfere with male reproductive development and function. Three agricultural antifungal triazoles that are known to modulate expression of cytochrome P450 (CYP) genes and enzymatic activities were tested for effects on steroidogenesis using rat in vivo (triadimefon), rat in vitro (myclobutanil and triadimefon), and human in vitro (myclobutanil, propiconazole, and triadimefon) model systems. Hormone production was measured in testis organ cultures from untreated adult and neonatal rats, following in vitro exposure to 1, 10, or 100 μM of myclobutanil or triadimefon. Myclobutanil and triadimefon reduced media levels of testosterone by 40–68% in the adult and neonatal testis culture, and altered steroid production in a manner that indicated CYP17-hydroxylase/17,20 lyase (CYP17A1) inhibition at the highest concentration tested. Rat to human comparison was explored using the H295R (human adrenal adenocarcinoma) cell line. Following 48 h exposure to myclobutanil, propiconazole, or triadimefon at 1, 3, 10, 30, or 100 μM, there was an overall decrease in estradiol, progesterone, and testosterone by all three triazoles. These data indicate that myclobutanil, propiconazole, and triadimefon are weak inhibitors of testosterone production in vitro. However, in vivo exposure of rats to triazoles resulted in increased serum and intra-testicular testosterone levels. This discordance could be due to higher concentrations of triazoles tested in vitro, and differences within an in vitro model system lacking hepatic metabolism and neuroendocrine control.     

A predictive data-driven framework for endocrine prioritization: a triazole fungicide case study

The US Environmental Protection Agency Endocrine Disruptor Screening Program (EDSP) is a tiered screening approach to determine the potential for a chemical to interact with estrogen, androgen, or thyroid hormone systems and/or perturb steroidogenesis. Use of high-throughput screening (HTS) to predict hazard and exposure is shifting the EDSP approach to (1) prioritization of chemicals for further screening; and (2) targeted use of EDSP Tier 1 assays to inform specific data needs. In this work, toxicology data for three triazole fungicides (triadimefon, propiconazole, and myclobutanil) were evaluated, including HTS results, EDSP Tier 1 screening (and other scientifically relevant information), and EPA guideline mammalian toxicology study data. The endocrine-related bioactivity predictions from HTS and information that satisfied the EDSP Tier 1 requirements were qualitatively concordant. Current limitations in the available HTS battery for thyroid and steroidogenesis pathways were mitigated by inclusion of guideline toxicology studies in this analysis. Similar margins (3–5 orders of magnitude) were observed between HTS-predicted human bioactivity and exposure values and between in vivo mammalian bioactivity and EPA chronic human exposure estimates for these products’ registered uses. Combined HTS hazard and human exposure predictions suggest low priority for higher-tiered endocrine testing of these triazoles. Comparison with the mammalian toxicology database indicated that this HTS-based prioritization would have been protective for any potential in vivo effects that form the basis of current risk assessment for these chemicals. This example demonstrates an effective, human health protective roadmap for EDSP evaluation of pesticide active ingredients via prioritization using HTS and guideline toxicology information.     

U-Shaped Dose Response in Behavioral Pharmacology: Historical Foundations

This article assesses the historical foundations of U-shaped dose-responses in behavioral pharmacology and toxicology with particular emphasis on schedules of reinforcement. Quantitative features of the drug dose response, which are consistent with the hormetic dose response model, are detailed along with possible mechanistic foundations to account for low-dose stimulation and high-dose inhibition responses. The article provides a reinterpretation of the biphasic dose response in the fixed interval (FI) schedule of reinforcement.     

三唑酮及其代谢产物在人参中的残留分析方法研究

目的 建立凝胶渗透色谱(GPC)和活性炭固相萃取柱(ENVI-Carb-SPE)结合的方法对样品进行净化处理,采用气相色谱-负化学电离源质谱联用(GC-NCIMS)的方法分析人参根及茎叶中三唑酮及其代谢产物三唑醇A、三唑醇B残留量的方法。方法 样品以丙酮为提取溶剂超声提取,并采用凝胶渗透色谱(GPC)和活性炭固相萃取柱(ENVI-Carb-SPE)结合的方法进行样品的净化,DB-5MS毛细管柱程序升温分离,采用气质联用负化学电离源(NCI)SIM方式检测,以空白样品提取液配制对照品溶液,以克服基质效应,外标法测定。结果 3种农药在10 min内完全分离,根及茎叶样品在3个水平添加回收率在90%～105%,均小于6%(n=6)。三唑酮和三唑醇的检测限分别为0.1和10 μg/L,仪器进样精密度均小于2%(n=6)。结论 本方法简便、快速、灵敏度高,适用于人参中三唑酮和三唑醇农药残留量测定与安全监控。     

Metabolism of myclobutanil and triadimefon by human and rat cytochrome P450 enzymes and liver microsomes

Metabolism of two triazole-containing antifungal azoles was studied using expressed human and rat cytochrome P450s (CYP) and liver microsomes. Substrate depletion methods were used due to the complex array of metabolites produced from myclobutanil and triadimefon. Myclobutanil was metabolized more rapidly than triadimefon, which is consistent with metabolism of the n-butyl side-chain in the former and the t-butyl group in the latter compound. Human and rat CYP2C and CYP3A enzymes were the most active. Metabolism was similar in microsomes prepared from livers of control and low-dose rats. High-dose (115?mg?kg^?1?day^?1 of triadimefon or 150?mg?kg^?1?day^?1 of myclobutanil) rats showed increased liver weight, induction of total CYP, and increased metabolism of the two triazoles, though the apparent K_m appeared unchanged relative to the control. These data identify CYP enzymes important for the metabolization of these two triazoles. Estimated hepatic clearances suggest that CYP induction may have limited impact in vivo.