Family relationships and the development of social competence in adolescence

Abstract Resilient adolescents are notable for their social competence, which enables them to form and maintain close relationships. The evidence is that adolescents' social competence is derived from their experience of close relationships within their family. On the basis of structured interviews, adolescents' working models of attachments can be categorized into secure, dismissive, or pre-occupied. These attachment styles are associated with very divergent beliefs about the self and others, with differing patterns of emotion regulation and with differing risk profiles for maladjustment. Parenting styles and family relationships appear to have considerable influence on attachment behaviour. Further evidence for the importance of the family comes from research on ego development. Family level behavioural patterns have been discerned from family research interviews which are associated with stagnation or advancement in ego development during adolescence. Though the results suggest causal connections, the direction of effects is far from clear. Longitudinal research underpins the importance of childhood temperament as a contributing factor to the quality of the family environment that the child and then adolescent experiences.     

学龄前儿童困难型气质影响因素的回归分析

目的 了解学龄前儿童困难型气质的影响因素。方法 对1150名学龄前儿童的气质类型进行评定，以筛选出的85例困难型气质儿童为研究对象，平易型气质儿童为对照，进行1：2病例对照研究，采用单因素和多因素条件logistic回归进行统计分析。结果 回归分析发现学龄前儿童困难型气质的影响因素主要有出生窒息（OR=8．93）、高热史（3岁前）（OR=2．85）、母亲打骂儿童情况（OR=5．266）、父母带儿童参加社会交往活动频率（OR=0．648）和长辈对儿童教育方式的一致性（OR=2．435）等。结论 学龄前儿童困难型气质受多种因素的影响，重视困难型气质儿童的早期发现，对其采取恰当的教养方式，做好围产期和儿童保健工作，有助于促进儿童健康成长。     

3-7岁麻烦型气质儿童餐桌行为的心理干预

目的：探讨心理干预对3－7岁麻烦型气质儿童的餐桌行为的作用。方法：用CTPS（China Preschool-children Temperament Scale)问卷方式对410名3－7岁儿童的气质类型进行综合评定划分出5个气质类型；对其中50名麻烦型气质儿童的餐桌行为问题进行了3个月的心理干预治疗。并对其餐桌行为做干预前后的偏挑食行为，改善进餐情绪，提高进餐速度有效。结论：心理干预可以纠正儿童的餐桌行为。     

Temperament as a potential predictor of mortality: Evidence from a 41-year prospective study

Psychological factors were hypothesized to influence mortality, in particular, early versus later mortality. To explore the relationship between temperament, a psychological factor, and mortality in a prospective study of 1337 medical students, we constructed a measure portraying three temperament types, using latent class analysis. Death occurred in 113 subjects over 25–41 years of follow-up. In univariate survival analysis, subjects tending to direct tension inward when under stress (Tension-In) had a higher risk of mortality than Tension-Out or Stable types. These associations persisted after adjustment for age, smoking, cholesterol level, and Quetelet Index. The relative risk (RR) of mortality for Tension-In was 1.56 (95% confidence interval, 1.00–2.44) compared with the Stable group. The risk was due entirely to the excess risk in persons under 55 years of age (RR, 2.59; 95% confidence interval, 1.46–4.62); the corresponding risk of death in older persons was 0.66 (0.30–1.48). Thus temperament is a significant risk factor for mortality, in particular, premature death.     

幼儿情绪自我调控的相关因素

目的:探讨与儿童自我调控能力有关的因素。方法:对560名18个月至6岁的幼儿进行自我调控能力、气质、生活环境和养育方式的评价。自我调控能力包括努力控制的注意集中和抑制性控制两因子和儿童自我调控发展评价。结果:(1)父亲受教育程度与儿童的自我调控能力有关(F=3．83,P<0．05;F =4．71,P<0．01)。父亲为大学或以上组的儿童的认知调控和注意集中的得分最高(3．6±0．4,34．5± 8．7),初中组的得分最低(3．4±0．5,30．4±9．2)。母亲受教育程度与儿童的自我调控能力有关(F= 5．14,P<0．01;F=3．02,P<0．05),母亲为大学或以上组与大专组的儿童的注意集中和抑制性控制得分相同并且最高(3．6±0．4,3．7±0．5)。自我调控发展总分随母亲受教育程度的升高而提高(129．2±25．1, 127．7±23．2,122．37±25．8,118．1±26．1,F=3．63,P<0．05)。(2)家长为权威型养育态度儿童的自我调控能力最强(F=4．02-23．23,P<0．05或P<0．001)。(3)“经常”看电视儿童的社会行为和亲社会行为的得分较很少看或不看者低(117．5±21．7,125．0±22．8,127．2±27．3,t=3．16、3．26,P<0．05)。 (4)自我调控因子与气质维度之间的相关性在3～6岁达到统计学意义的数目比3岁前更多而且相关程度也普遍提高。适应性和坚持性是与自我调控能力相关性最高的两个维度(r=0．4～0．6)。易养型儿童的自我调控能力得分最高,启动缓慢型的最低(F=10．02～15．4,P<0．001)。结论:气质和养育方式是与自我调控关系较大的因素。     

Prefrontal activation in preschool children is associated with maternal adversity and child temperament: A preliminary fNIRS study of inhibitory control

Exposure to adversity is a well-documented risk factor for cognitive, behavioral, and mental health problems. In fact, the consequences of adversity may be intergenerational. A growing body of research suggests that maternal exposures to adversity, including those prior to childbirth, are associated with offspring biobehavioral development. In a sample of 36 mothers and their preschool-age children (mean child age = 4.21 ± 0.92 years), we used functional near-infrared spectroscopy to replicate and extend this work to include brain activation during inhibitory control in young children. We found that measures of maternal exposure to adversity, including cumulative, childhood, and preconception exposures, were significantly and positively associated with activation in the right frontopolar prefrontal cortex (PFC) and in the left temporal and parietal clusters during inhibitory control. In addition, and consistent with previous findings, children's increased negative affect and decreased effortful control were associated with increased right PFC activation during inhibitory control. These findings provide preliminary evidence that maternal and dispositional risk factors are linked to alterations in PFC functioning during the preschool years. Children of mothers with a history of exposure to adversity, as well as children who are less temperamentally regulated, may require increased neural resources to meet the cognitive demands of inhibitory control.     

学龄前儿童气质类型及相关因素研究

[目的]了解武汉市学龄前儿童气质类型,探讨其影响因素.[方法]采用随机整群抽样的方法,抽取武汉市1150名3～7岁儿童为研究对象,应用<3～7岁儿童气质测查问卷>和自制的相关因素问卷对儿童气质和有关因素进行调查.[结果]母亲孕期被动吸烟、情绪紧张和产后焦虑,儿童早产、出生时窒息、高热史,长辈的教育方式不一致等易导致儿童出现麻烦型气质;而核心家庭、母亲性格外向的儿童则较少出现麻烦型气质.[结论]生物学因素和家庭环境因素影响学龄前儿童气质类型,良好的围生期保健,和谐、稳定的家庭环境及正确的教育方式有利于儿童身心健康发展.     

学龄前儿童气质与行为问题的关系探讨

【目的】探讨学龄前儿童气质与行为问题的关系，分析气质特征及其在儿童行为问题发生中的作用。【方法】采用《NYLS3～7岁儿童气质问卷》及《Conners’儿童行为家长问卷》对长春市四所幼儿园737名学龄前儿童进行测查。【结果】行为问题儿童与对照组儿章气质类型分布差异有显著性（P〈0．05），在行为问题组中难养型的比例明显增多且在活动水平、规律性、趋避性、反应强度、情绪本质、注意分散度这六个维度的得分与对照组比较差异有显著性（P〈0．05）。不同气质类型儿童在品行问题、心身障碍、冲动多动、焦虑和学习问题这五个因子的得分比较差异有显著性（P〈0.05）。【结论】行为问题儿童的气质类型以难养型居多并存其独特性．应根据其气质特点，采取相应的教育措施。     

小于胎龄儿气质和发育筛查的研究

【目的】探讨小于胎龄儿（small for gestational age，SGA）的气质和发育情况及其二者的关系，为高危儿童的早期医疗干预提供一些理论依据。【方法】采用Carey气质问卷评定6～7月龄SGA儿童的气质，12月龄时，以DST评价SGA儿童的智力、运动和社会适应能力，选择适于胎龄儿（appropriate for gestational age，AGA）作为对照组。【结果】SGA组消极型气质类型的检出率高于AGA组，且SGA组发育商可疑者的检出率高于AGA组。SGA组中，难于抚养气质的婴儿智力指数和发育商得分均比易于抚养气质的婴儿低；多元逐步回归分析显示，影响智力发展的主要因素是节律性和反应阈值，表现为节律性好和反应阈值高有利于智力的发展。【结论】SGA在婴儿期即表现出一定的气质特点，且对婴儿时期的智力、运动、社会适应能力可能产生了一定的作用，根据其气质特点进行早期干预以提高智能等发育水平。     

Typus melancholicus and the Temperament and Character Inventory personality dimensions in patients with major depression

Although many clinical studies have been conducted to determine the etiological role and clinical implications of typus melancholicus for unipolar depression, maladaptive personality features in depressive patients have not been well described. This study explores typus melancholicus, as measured by the rigidity subscale of the Munich Personality Test, and maladaptive personality features, as measured by the Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI), in 131 remitted patients with DSM-IV major depression and 154 normal controls. The patients reported significantly higher scores on rigidity and harm avoidance and significantly lower scores on self-directedness and cooperativeness. Only 23.6% of the variance of the rigidity scale was explained by the variance of the seven TCI scales, in which only persistence was significantly correlated positively to rigidity. Cluster analysis identified four subgroups, two of which were characterized by a high rigidity score. One of these two subgroups showed no maladaptive personality features, as measured by the TCI, while the other showed high harm avoidance and low self-directedness. These results indicate that the personality of depressive patients is characterized not only by typus melancholicus but also by maladaptive personality features, that typus melancholicus is not well represented by any TCI scale, and that typus melancholicus and maladaptive personality features can coexist in some depressive patients.