There and up again: On the uses and misuses of neuroimaging in psychology

The aim of this article is to discuss the conditions under which functional neuroimaging can contribute to the study of higher cognition. We begin by presenting two case studies—on moral and economic decision making—which will help us identify and examine one of the main ways in which neuroimaging can help advance the study of higher cognition. We agree with critics that functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies seldom “refine” or “confirm” particular psychological hypotheses, or even provide details of the neural implementation of cognitive functions. However, we suggest that neuroimaging can support psychology in a different way—namely, by selecting among competing hypotheses of the cognitive mechanisms underlying some mental function. One of the main ways in which neuroimaging can be used for hypothesis selection is via reverse inferences, which we here examine in detail. Despite frequent claims to the contrary, we argue that successful reverse inferences do not assume any strong or objectionable form of reductionism or functional locationism. Moreover, our discussion illustrates that reverse inferences can be successful at early stages of psychological theorizing, when models of the cognitive mechanisms are only partially developed.     

A fundamental critique of the fascial distortion model and its application in clinical practice

Introduction

The therapeutic techniques used in the fascial distortion model (FDM) have become increasingly popular among manual therapists and physical therapists. The reasons for this trend remain to be empirically explored. Therefore this paper pursues two goals: first, to investigate the historical and theoretical background of FDM, and second, to discuss seven problems associated with the theory and practice of FDM.

Religion and spirituality: a discussion paper about negativity, reductionism and differentiation in nursing texts

BACKGROUND: The last 30 years have seen a proliferation of literature about spirituality in the nursing press. A dominant theme has been the need to differentiate spirituality from religion and this has provoked a number of authors to attempt to define and describe religion. As nursing advocates respect for the person's religious beliefs the way in which it is portrayed is very relevant. AIMS: This work explores how religion is defined and discussed in the nursing literature about spirituality to consider whether the way religion is portrayed could be said to demonstrate 'respect' for religious beliefs. METHODS: Texts about religion were examined in relation to theories of religion from anthropology, sociology and religious studies. These disciplines have produced substantive or irreducible accounts in contrast to functional and reductive theories about religion. RESULTS: The result of this analysis is that there appears to be a tendency to talk about religion without using sources which itself suggests a lack of respect as well as an inclination to view it only in reductive and functional terms. This is proved by the similarity of ideas in the nursing literature to the functionalist and reductionist theories of Frazer, Tylor, Marx, Durkheim and Freud. This approach is criticised with reference to the work of Otto, Bellah, Berger and Pals who suggest that religion should be seen as irreducibly to do with the sacred. It is proposed that this is a more appropriate outlook to take for an occupation which professes to respect the religious beliefs of all individuals. However, viewing religion in this more meaningful way, acknowledging their spirituality has implications for attempts to differentiate religion and spirituality. CONCLUSION: Reductive accounts of religion imply, probably inadvertently but nevertheless negative, attitudes towards religious belief. A more serious and deeper exploration of the meaning of religion from the standpoint of irreducibility might be more respectful and tolerant of religious belief. This is particularly salient in a society where religious practice is increasing both in the indigenous population and as a result of immigration.     

黄芪的临床应用及其药理中的整体系统思维

历代医家对黄芪的应用达到了出神入化的境界。黄芪的现代药理研究,达到了分子水平,但还原分析的研究方法有着明显的局限性,而中医整体论的不足也是不言而喻的。在复杂性科学体系内,还原论和整体论的有机结合,则可能是中医药现代化的最佳途径。     

新痹痛灵复方现代化研究思辨

新痹痛灵复方起源于全国名老中医汪履秋教授的经验用方,用于中医"痹证"之"寒湿痹阻证"疗效显著。秉承中医整体观及辨证论治思想的中药复方在近年来的研究中越发体现出多靶点治疗及综合性调节的优势。新痹痛灵复方的现代化研究之路是立足于中医基本思想,在完善与方对应的"病证结合"动物模型基础上,以传统的还原分析及新兴的系统论思想为双研究平台,与时俱进地运用现代医学技术,多层次、多途径、多方法开展的研究之路。     

Some considerations on the nature of LUCA, and the nature of life

In addition to its scientific interest, research on the last universal common ancestor (LUCA) and the lower part of the tree of life raises important and difficult issues in biology, but also in the philosophy of science as well as in philosophy in general. The way inquiries are formulated has to be scrutinized to avoid unanswerable questions. Preconceived ideas, poorly defined notions and abuse of metaphors are obstacles which can induce bias in studies and in the interpretation of their results. In the background, the question of life has recently re-emerged.     

中西医结合医学创新理论的哲学基础

目的:构建创新的中西医结合医学基础理论体系是一个跨世纪的世界性难题,西医学理论以现代科学的还原论哲学观为指导,中医学理论则注重整体观、联系观,倾向于系统论的哲学观。哲学是一切科学之母,医学的发展与医学哲学观的引导息息相关,中西医结合医学创新理论的构建需要以新的医学哲学观为基础。"元衡论"的观点融合了中医学理论系统论观点与西医学理论还原论观点,有着平衡观、整体观、联系观、单元结构观等内涵,同时注重宏观与微观、整体与局部、结构与功能的内在联系与辨证统一,可以作为一种新的医学哲学观,用于构建中西医结合创新理论的哲学基础。     

Towards non-reductionistic medical anthropology,medical education and practitioner–patient-interaction: The example of Anthroposophic Medicine

Objective

To develop the hypothesis that reductionism in medical anthropology, professional education and health care influences empathy development, communication and patient satisfaction.

Method

We identified relevant literature and reviewed the material in a structured essay. We reflected our hypothesis by applying it to Anthroposophic Medicine (AM), an example of holistic theory and practice.

Results

Reductionism in medical anthropology such as in conventional medicine seems to lead to a less empathetic and less communicative health care culture than holism such as in CAM disciplines. However, reductionism can be transformed into a systemic, multi-perspective holistic view, when the emergent properties of the physical, living, psychic, spiritual and social levels of human existence and the causal relations between them are more carefully accounted for in epistemology, medical anthropology and professional education. This is shown by the example of AM and its possible benefits for communication with and satisfaction of patients.

Conclusion

A non-reductionistic understanding of the human being may improve communication with patients and enhance patient benefit and satisfaction.

Practice implications

Interdisciplinary qualitative and quantitative studies are warranted to test this hypothesis and to understand the complex relations between epistemology, medical anthropology, education, health care delivery and benefit for patients.     

The control of food intake of free-living humans: Putting the pieces back together

The control of food intake has been studied using reductionism; by separately investigating environmental, physiological, and genetic variables. The general model of intake regulation attempts to reassemble the pieces into an organized whole. It postulates that intake is influenced by sets of both physiological factors which have negative feedback loops to intake and environmental factors which do not. Data and behavioral genetic analysis on a number of environmental, psychological, dietary, and social variables demonstrate that they have large impacts on the intake of free-living humans in their everyday environments and their magnitude and impact on intake are influenced by heredity. Recent evidence of built environment influences on activity and intake further indicate the profound influence of environmental circumstances on both intake and expenditure. A computer simulation of the general model of intake regulation demonstrates that the model predicts different maintained levels of intake and body weight depending upon the external environment and that change in the environment can produce new sustained levels. It is suggested that eating is influenced by a myriad of physiological and non-physiological factors and that total intake results from the integral of their influences. It is concluded that recombining the components broken down in the reductionistic process results in a functional whole that can well describe human behavior in natural environments.The paper represents an invited review by a symposium, award winner or keynote speaker at the Society for the Study of Ingestive Behavior [SSIB] Annual Meeting in Portland, July 2009.     

Systems biology beyond networks: generating order from disorder through self-organization

Erwin Schrödinger pointed out in his 1944 book “What is Life” that one defining attribute of biological systems seems to be their tendency to generate order from disorder defying the second law of thermodynamics. Almost parallel to his findings, the science of complex systems was founded based on observations on physical and chemical systems showing that inanimate matter can exhibit complex structures although their interacting parts follow simple rules. This is explained by a process known as self-organization and it is now widely accepted that multi-cellular biological organisms are themselves self-organizing complex systems in which the relations among their parts are dynamic, contextual and interdependent. In order to fully understand such systems, we are required to computationally and mathematically model their interactions as promulgated in systems biology. The preponderance of network models in the practice of systems biology inspired by a reductionist, bottom-up view, seems to neglect, however, the importance of bidirectional interactions across spatial scales and domains. This approach introduces a shortcoming that may hinder research on emergent phenomena such as those of tissue morphogenesis and related diseases, such as cancer. Another hindrance of current modeling attempts is that those systems operate in a parameter space that seems far removed from biological reality. This misperception calls for more tightly coupled mathematical and computational models to biological experiments by creating and designing biological model systems that are accessible to a wide range of experimental manipulations. In this way, a comprehensive understanding of fundamental processes in normal development or of aberrations, like cancer, will be generated.