Prime-boost vaccine strategy against viral infections: Mechanisms and benefits

The essential goal of vaccination is to generate potent and long-term protection against diseases. Among different vaccine modalities, prime-boost vaccine strategies could enhance cellular and also humoral immunity in several animal models. These strategies have been applied for the development of vaccines against important infectious diseases such as HIV, SIV, HCV, HSV, and HBV indicating promising results even in clinical trials. Several factors including selection of antigen, type of vector, delivery route, dose, adjuvant, boosting regimen, the order of vector injection, and the intervals between different vaccinations influence the outcome of prime-boost immunization approaches. The reported data suggest that the prime-boost strategy as a combination of vaccines (i.e., heterologous prime-boost) may be better than a single vaccine for protection against infectious diseases. Indeed, in many cases, heterologous prime-boost can be more immunogenic than homologous prime-boost strategy. This review discusses the recent advances in prime-boost immunization strategies as well as their benefits and mechanisms of action.     

Priming with a very low dose of DNA complexed with cationic block copolymers followed by protein boost elicits broad and long-lasting antigen-specific humoral and cellular responses in mice

Cationic block copolymers spontaneously assemble via electrostatic interactions with DNA molecules in aqueous solution giving rise to micellar structures that protect the DNA from enzymatic degradation both in vitro and in vivo. In addition, we have previously shown that they are safe, not immunogenic and greatly increased antigen-specific CTL responses following six intramuscular inoculations of a very low dose (1 μg) of the vaccine DNA as compared to naked DNA. Nevertheless, they failed to elicit detectable humoral responses against the antigen. To gain further insight in the potential application of this technology, here we show that a shorter immunization protocol based on two DNA intramuscular inoculations of 1 μg of DNA delivered by these copolymers and a protein boost elicits in mice broad (both humoral and cellular) and long-lasting responses and increases the antigen-specific Th1-type T cell responses and CTLs as compared to priming with naked DNA. These results indicate that cationic block copolymers represent a promising adjuvant and delivery technology for DNA vaccination strategies aimed at combating intracellular pathogens.     

人乳头状瘤病毒16型不同基因疫苗联合免疫的实验研究

目的 探索联合免疫策略在预防和治疗人乳头状瘤病毒16型（HPV16）相关肿瘤中的作用。方法 在C57BL／6动物模型中，观察了表达HPV16基因的融合蛋白L2E7疫苗和重组痘苗病毒mE67疫苗的不同联合免疫方式在预防和治疗HPV16相关肿瘤中的作用。用酶联免疫斑点（ELISPOT）和细胞毒T淋巴细胞（CTL）反应评价它们在诱发机体产生细胞免疫应答中的作用。结果 我们发现以HPV16 L2E7融合蛋白＋佐剂（CpG）初免，用重组痘苗病毒rVVmE67加强免疫的联合免疫方式在C57BL／6小鼠实验中可以有效预防和治疗HPV16相关肿瘤的攻击。ELISPOT可以检测到高水平的E749-57肽特异性，分泌IFN-γ的效应T细胞。CTL检测同样反应出这种联合免疫方式所诱发的CTL细胞可以有效识别并杀伤含HPV16E6／E7的靶细胞。结论 以HPV16L2E7融合蛋白＋CpG初免，用重组痘苗病毒rVVmE67加强的联合免疫策略可以有效防治HPV16相关肿瘤，为进一步研究提供了科学基础。     

含E型沙眼衣原体MOMP基因的重组腺病毒和DNA疫苗联合免疫效果的研究

目的探讨E型沙眼衣原体（Ct）主要外膜蛋白（MOMP）DNA疫苗和重组腺病毒联合免疫小鼠诱导的免疫效应。方法构建、纯化重组腺病毒Ad-MOMP及重组真核表达质粒pVAX1-MOMP。设计4种免疫方案,分别为DNA免疫（ DNA组）、重组腺病毒免疫（ Ad组）、DNA初次免疫-重组腺病毒加强免疫（ DNA/Ad组）、重组腺病毒初次免疫-DNA加强免疫（ Ad/DNA组）。末次免疫后2周检测小鼠血清特异IgG、IgG1、IgG2a、IgA抗体,阴道分泌物SIgA抗体及脾淋巴细胞分泌IFN-γ、IL-10水平。结果DNA组诱导较弱免疫应答,未产生SIgA抗体及Th1反应。 Ad组诱导出Th1反应及SIgA抗体,且血清抗体显著高于DNA组。联合免疫均能诱导明显强于单独免疫的黏膜SIgA、血清抗体及Th1反应。 Ad/DNA组的Th1反应强于DNA/Ad组;而DNA/Ad组的血清抗体和黏膜抗体水平强于Ad/DNA组。结论Ad-MOMP能诱导黏膜免疫及Th1细胞免疫应答,DNA/Ad及Ad/DNA联合免疫产生的特异性免疫应答明显强于单独免疫。其中Ad/DNA的Th1反应优势更明显,DNA/Ad的血清抗体和黏膜抗体反应更强。接种顺序会影响联合免疫的强弱及类型,这为Ct疫苗的设计研究提供新的思路和实验依据。     

Ag85B DNA/H37Ra序贯免疫效果的探讨

目的：初步探讨含结核分枝杆菌Ag85B成熟蛋白的DNA（pTB30m）和结核菌H37Ra序贯免疫小鼠产生的特异性免疫应答。方法：重组质粒pTB30m用碱裂解法制备后进行质量鉴定。用pTB30m肌注初次免疫小鼠2周后,H37Ra皮内加强免疫作为DNA-85B/H37Ra组,同时设定DNA-85B/BCG组、H37Ra组、BCG组及未免疫组。免疫4周或8周后,用ELISA法检测小鼠血清中抗PPD IgG抗体的水平和MTT法检测其脾淋巴细胞的刺激指数（SI）。结果：酶切鉴定pTB30m所含外源基因片段大小正确,并且纯度较高。DNA-85B/H37Ra组小鼠血清中抗PPD IgG水平、脾淋巴细胞的SI均显著高于未免疫组（P〈0.05）;其抗PPD IgG水平稍高于DNA-85B/BCG组、H37Ra组及BCG组,但它们之间无显著性差异（P〉0.05）;其脾淋巴细胞的SI显著高于H37Ra、BCG组（P〈0.05）,而与DNA-85B/BCG组比较,仅在4周有显著性差异。在DNA-85B/H37Ra组内,SI在4周显著高于8周（P〈0.05）,而血清中抗PPD IgG水平8周均显著高于4周（P〈0.05）。结论：DNA-85B/H37Ra序贯免疫策略可以诱导小鼠产生特异性体液免疫和细胞免疫,初步证明其免疫效果略优于BCG。     

Prime-boost vaccination with plasmid DNA encoding caprine-arthritis encephalitis lentivirus env and viral SU suppresses challenge virus and development of arthritis

This study evaluated the efficacy of prime-boost vaccination for immune control of caprine arthritis-encephalitis virus (CAEV), a macrophage tropic lentivirus that causes progressive arthritis in the natural host. Vaccination of Saanen goats with pUC-based plasmid DNA expressing CAEV env induces T helper type 1 (Th1) biased immune responses to vector-encoded surface envelope (SU), and the plasmid-primed Th1 response is expanded following boost with purified SU in Freund's incomplete adjuvant (SU-FIA) (J. C. Beyer et al., 2001, Vaccine 19, 1643-1651). Four goats vaccinated with env expression plasmids and boosted with SU-FIA were challenged intravenously with 1 x 10(4) TCID(50) of CAEV at 428 days after SU-FIA boost and evaluated by immunological, virological, and disease criteria. Controls included two goats primed with pUC18 and eight unvaccinated goats. Goats receiving prime-boost vaccination with CAEV env plasmids and SU-FIA became infected but suppressed postchallenge virus replication, provirus loads in lymph node, and development of arthritis for at least 84 weeks.     

Improved efficacy of DNA vaccination against prostate carcinoma by boosting with recombinant protein vaccine and by introduction of a novel adjuvant epitope

DNA vaccine represents an attractive approach for cancer treatment by inducing active immune-deprivation of gastrin-releasing peptide (GRP) from tumor cells, the growth of which is dependent on the stimulation of GRP. In this study, we developed a DNA vaccine using a plasmid vector to deliver the immunogen of six copies of the B cell epitope GRP_18–27 (GRP6). In order to increase the potency of this DNA vaccine, multiple strategies have been applied including DNA-prime protein-boost immunization and introduction of a foreign T-helper epitope into DNA vaccine. Mice vaccinated DNA vaccine boosting with HSP65-GRP6 protein induced high titer and relatively high avidity of anti-GRP antibodies as well as inhibition effect on the growth of murine prostate carcinoma, superior to the treatment using DNA alone or BCG priming HSP65-GRP6 protein boosting. Furthermore, the introduction of a novel foreign T-helper epitope into the GRP DNA vaccine showed a markedly stronger humoral immune response against GRP and tumor rejection even than the DNA-prime protein-boost strategy. No further stronger immunogenicity of this foreign T-helper epitope modified DNA vaccine was observed even using the strategy of modified DNA vaccine-priming and HSP65-GRP6 boosting method. The data presented demonstrate that improvement of potency of anti-GRP DNA vaccine with the above two feasible approaches should offer useful methods in the development of new DNA vaccine against growth factors for cancer immunotherapy.     

Novel recombinant BCG expressing perfringolysin O and the over-expression of key immunodominant antigens; pre-clinical characterization,safety and protection against challenge with Mycobacterium tuberculosis

Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), the causative agent of tuberculosis (TB), has infected approximately two billion individuals worldwide with approximately 9.2 million new cases and 1.6 million deaths annually. Current efforts are focused on making better BCG priming vaccines designed to induce a comprehensive and balanced immunity followed by booster(s) targeting a specific set of relevant antigens in common with the BCG prime. We describe the generation and immunological characterization of recombinant BCG strains with properties associated with lysis of the endosome compartment and over-expression of key Mtb antigens. The endosome lysis strain, a derivative of BCG SSI-1331 (BCG₁₃₃₁) expresses a mutant form of perfringolysin O (PfoA_G137Q), a cytolysin normally secreted by Clostridium perfringens. Integration of the PfoA_G137Q gene into the BCG genome was accomplished using an allelic exchange plasmid to replace ureC with pfoA_G137Q under the control of the Ag85B promoter. The resultant BCG construct, designated AERAS-401 (BCG₁₃₃₁ ΔureC::ΩpfoA_G137Q) secreted biologically active Pfo, was well tolerated with a good safety profile in immunocompromised SCID mice. A second rBCG strain, designated AFRO-1, was generated by incorporating an expression plasmid encoding three mycobacterial antigens, Ag85A, Ag85B and TB10.4, into AERAS-401. Compared to the parental BCG strain, vaccination of mice and guinea pigs with AFRO-1 resulted in enhanced immune responses. Mice vaccinated with AFRO-1 and challenged with the hypervirulent Mtb strain HN878 also survived longer than mice vaccinated with the parental BCG. Thus, we have generated improved rBCG vaccine candidates that address many of the shortcomings of the currently licensed BCG vaccine strains.     

Enhancing DNA vaccination by sequential injection of lymph nodes with plasmid vectors and peptides

DNA vaccines or peptides are capable of inducing specific immunity; however, their translation to the clinic has generally been problematic, primarily due to the reduced magnitude of immune response and poor pharmacokinetics. Herein, we demonstrate that a novel immunization strategy, encompassing sequential exposure of the lymph node milieu to plasmid and peptide in a heterologous prime-boost fashion, results in considerable MHC class I-restricted immunity in mice. Plasmid-primed antigen expression was essential for the generation of a population of central memory T cells, expressing CD62L and low in PD-1, with substantial capability to expand and differentiate to peripheral memory and effector cells, following subsequent exposure to peptide. These vaccine-induced T cells dominated the T cell repertoire, were able to produce large amounts of chemokines and pro-inflammatory cytokines, and recognized tumor cells effectively. In addition to outlining a feasible and effective method to transform plasmid DNA vaccination into a potentially viable immunotherapeutic approach for cancer, this study sheds light on the mechanism of heterologous prime-boost and the considerable heterogeneity of MHC class I-restricted T cell responses.     

Enhanced Th2 immunity after DNA prime-protein boost immunization with amyloid beta (1-42) plus CpG oligodeoxynucleotides in aged rats

Generation and accumulation of fibrillar amyloid beta (Abeta) is widely considered as the pathogenic basis of neurodegeneration in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Both active immunization with fibrillar Abeta and passive immunization with anti-Abeta antibodies in transgenic mouse models of AD result in prevention/dissociation of Abeta plaque formation and restoration of cognitive functions. However, similar immunization studies in humans had to be halted because 6% of the AD patients developed acute meningoencephalitis, likely due to anti-Abeta specific autoimmune Th1 cells. Hence, making Abeta immunotherapy successful requires production of strong antibody responses without Th1-type immunity. In an attempt to develop safer vaccines, we examined the influence of oligodeoxynucleotides as adjuvant on the Th1 and Th2 immune response to Abeta in aged rats. We further investigated whether a DNA prime-protein boost strategy could elicit a more robust Th2 response. The results of the present study showed that all the animals injected with either Abeta peptide alone or Abeta encoding plasmid alone or plasmid DNA prime followed by peptide boost have elicited specific anti-Abeta antibodies. When co-administered, synthetic oligodeoxynucleotides (ODN) further enhanced the anti-Abeta titres. More importantly, the IgG subclasses of the antibodies generated by DNA prime-peptide boost regimen with ODN as adjuvant were primarily of IgG2b and IgG1 isotypes, suggesting that heterologous immunization strategy along with ODN would be advantageous in eliciting more beneficial Th2-type humoral immune response.