A comparison of the sniff magnitude test and the University of Pennsylvania Smell Identification Test in children and nonnative English speakers

The sniff magnitude test (SMT) is a reliable and rapid clinical test of olfactory function that is minimally dependent on cognitive and linguistic abilities. In this study, we compared performance on the SMT and University of Pennsylvania Smell Identification Test (UPSIT) in samples of children and nonnative English speakers. Previous research has shown that these populations perform poorly on the UPSIT as compared with young, healthy U.S. adults. Such performance differences may reflect variations in memory/cognition and language/culture rather than olfactory abilities. The UPSIT scores of children and of Indian and Chinese graduate students were found to be lower than those of young U.S. adults. By contrast, these groups did not perform more poorly than U.S. adults did on the SMT. The results are consistent with findings from our studies, with the elderly showing that performance on the UPSIT, but not the SMT, is significantly correlated with measures of memory, language and other cognitive abilities. The findings highlight the utility of the SMT when evaluating the olfactory ability of the very young, older adults and people with diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds.     

Decreased movement-related beta desynchronization and impaired post-movement beta rebound in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

ObjectiveThis study explored event-related desynchronization (ERD) and synchronization (ERS) in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) to quantify cortical sensorimotor processes during volitional movements. We furthermore compared ERD/ERS measures with clinical scores and movement-related cortical potential (MRCP) amplitudes.MethodsElectroencephalograms were recorded while 21 ALS patients and 19 controls performed two self-paced motor tasks: sniffing and right index finger flexion. Based on Wavelet analysis the alpha and beta frequency bands were selected for subsequent evaluation.ResultsPatients generated significantly smaller resting alpha spectral power density (SPD) and smaller beta ERD compared to controls. Additionally patients exhibited merely unilateral post-movement ERS (beta rebound) whereas this phenomenon was bilateral in controls. ERD/ERS amplitudes did not correlate with corresponding MRCPs for either patients or controls.ConclusionsThe smaller resting alpha SPD and beta ERD and asymmetrical appearance of beta ERS in patients compared to controls could be the result of pyramidal cell degeneration and/or corpus callosum involvement in ALS.SignificanceThese results support the notion of reduced movement preparation in ALS involving also areas outside the motor cortex. Furthermore post-movement cortical inhibition seems to be impaired in ALS. ERD/ERS and MRCP are found to be independent measures of cortical motor functions in ALS.     

Behavioral correlates of self-stimulation, flight and ambivalence

Behavioral phenomena consisting of approach (self-stimulation, SS), flight and ambivalence (approach-flight) elicited by intracranial stimulation (ICS) along the neuraxis from the forebrain to the hindbrain were filmed and analyzed. The main findings were: (1) approach, flight and ambivalence could be obtained from all levels of the brain; (2) no single fixed behavioral pattern was common to approach or ambivalence; (3) there were instead different patterns which varied according to the area but some of the individual features of these patterns were at times common to several brain areas; (4) exploration with sniffing was found to be the most frequent behavior accompanying both approach and ambivalence. For SS, exploration was organized in the following topographical manner: nonsystematically at the level of the dorsal pons, diffused at the raphé, scattered at the level of the ventromedial mesencephalon (VMT), and focalized at the level of the lateral hypothalamus; (5) the highest intensities of SS, flight and ambivalence were found in the more caudal areas, namely the VMT for approach, the posterior mesencephalic reticular formation for ambivalence and the ventral region of the reticularis pontis caudalis (RPC) for flight; (6) in approach behavior for SS, when the point of stimulation was changed from the medio-frontal cortex to the posterior hypothalamus and VMT, an orderly change from depression to excitation of locomotor activity appeared. However, in the case of the locus coeruleus (LC) and adjacent dorsal tegmentum, SS by bursts was correlated with either intense motor activity or transitory periods of adynamia followed eventually by progressive ambivalence after bursts of SS; (7) approach and ambivalence elicited from areas known or believed to be involved in sleep regulation (midbrain raphé, LC and proximal dorsal pontine areas) were accompanied by what at first appeared as disruptive behaviors; but other complex behaviors were noted which suggest that during alertness, these areas may be involved in behaviors that are phylogenetically important for the development of motor and cognitive functions and most likely also in the behavioral manifestations of major psychiatric illnesses.     

Assessment of the Sniff Magnitude Test as a clinical test of olfactory function

Olfactory threshold and odor identification tasks currently serve as the standard approaches to the clinical assessment of olfactory function. Although these methods can be used effectively with the average patient, they suffer from some limitations when used to evaluate children, people with cognitive impairment, or people from diverse cultural backgrounds. A novel approach to the clinical evaluation of olfactory function, the Sniff Magnitude Test, attempts to minimize the cognitive demands of an olfactory test and thereby overcome some of the limitations of alternative tests. This is achieved by measuring the reflex-like reduction in sniffing that occurs when a malodor is encountered. The reliability and the validity of the Sniff Magnitude Test were assessed by testing people on two occasions using the University of Pennsylvania Smell Identification Test (UPSIT), a butanol threshold task, the Alcohol Sniff Test, and the Sniff Magnitude Test. The test-retest reliability of the Sniff Magnitude Test was r=.80, higher than the butanol thresholds and Alcohol Sniff Test but somewhat lower than the UPSIT. Performance on the Sniff Magnitude Test (the sniff magnitude to a malodor relative to nonodorized air) was correlated between r=-.61 and r=-.66 with the other measures of olfactory function. This range of correlations was comparable to that observed between the butanol threshold, the UPSIT, and the Alcohol Sniff Test. Finally, evidence for the advantages of the Sniff Magnitude Test, as compared to the UPSIT, was provided by a study with young children. It is concluded that the Sniff Magnitude Test has significant potential as a clinical measure of olfactory function, and that further testing and development of this method are warranted.     

Behavioural characterisation of rats exposed neonatally to bisphenol-A: responses to a novel environment and to methylphenidate challenge in a putative model of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder

Neonatal exposure of rats to bisphenol-A, an endocrine disruptor, has recently been proposed as a possible animal model of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), because such rats exhibit motor hyperactivity. To strengthen the face validity of this animal model, the present study replicated the original experiments and additionally analysed both changes in habituation to a novel environment and behavioural responses to methylphenidate, the two phenomena known to be altered in ADHD. Single intracisternal administration of bisphenol-A (20 and 40 microg) into 5-day-old male Wistar rats impaired habituation to a novel environment in the light, but not the dark, phase at 4 weeks of age. Thus, habituation as assessed by time-dependent decrease of locomotor activity, rearing, sniffing and grooming was significantly reduced in bisphenol-A-pretreated rats. Methylphenidate (1 and 3 mg/kg, i.p.) dose-dependently enhanced locomotor activity in both vehicle-pretreated and bisphenol-A-pretreated rats during both the dark and the light phases. Thus, the effects of methylphenidate did not differ between bisphenol-A-pretreated and vehicle-pretreated rats. Apart from a slight methylphenidate-induced increase in rearing and sniffing in bisphenol-A (20 microg)-pretreated rats, the overall effects of methylphenidate on rearing, sniffing and grooming were similar in both vehicle- and bisphenol-A-pretreated rats. It is concluded that neonatal exposure of rats to bisphenol-A is an animal model with limited face validity for ADHD, because the motor hyperactivity and reduced habituation to a novel environment are not accompanied by altered responses to methylphenidate.     

Dose-dependent effects of the D3-preferring agonist 7-OH-DPAT on motor behaviors and place conditioning

Dose-dependent effects of 7-OH-DPAT on several behaviors, including place preference, were assessed. Three 2-day conditioning trials were conducted. On 1 day, animals received an injection of one of eight doses of 7-OH-DPAT (0–5 mg/kg) and were placed into a distinct compartment for 40 min. On the other day, animals received an injection of saline and were placed into a different compartment for 40 min. Locomotion, sniffing, and yawning were measured following the first and last injection of 7-OH-DPAT. Place conditioning was assessed on the day following the last trial. 7-OH-DPAT produced a U-shaped dose-dependent change in locomotion and sniffing, and an inverted U-shaped dose-dependent change in yawning. Additionally, repeated administration of 0.1 mg/kg sensitized yawning, whereas 5 mg/kg sensitized locomotion. None of the doses of 7-OH-DPAT produced conditioned place preference, however, there was a trend for conditioned place aversion at 0.03 mg/kg. By contrast, LiCl (127 mg/kg) produced conditioned place aversion and amphetamine (1 mg/kg) produced conditioned place preference using the same conditioning parameters. A subsequent experiment in which the number of animals and conditioning trials were increased demonstrated that the 0.03 mg/kg dose of 7-OH-DPAT produced conditioned place aversion. 7-OH-DPAT has a higher affinity for D₃ receptors relative to D₂ receptors. Therefore, it is suggested that intermediate doses (0.01–0.1 mg/kg) that increase yawning, and decrease locomotion and sniffing, may preferentially occupy D₃ receptors. Furthermore, the results suggest that these putative D₃-preferring doses have weak aversive effects.     

Buprenorphine sniffing as a response to inadequate care in substituted patients: results from the Subazur survey in south-eastern France

Background

Despite the safety profile of buprenorphine, which makes this treatment highly acceptable for many countries, the risk of its diversion raises several public health and drug policy concerns. Although buprenorphine injection has been investigated quite extensively, diversion by sniffing has been overlooked. The Subazur survey gave us the opportunity to identify factors associated with buprenorphine sniffing in patients receiving buprenorphine in primary care.

Methods

We studied a population of 111 stabilized patients receiving office-based buprenorphine in south-eastern France. The design of the study consisted of two longitudinal assessments by phone interviews (at enrolment and 6 months later) detailing patients' socio-demographic characteristics, addictive behaviors, treatment experience and general health status. We used a logistic regression based on generalized estimating equations (GEE) to identify factors associated with buprenorphine sniffing at any interview.

Results

Among the 111 interviewed subjects, 33 (30%) patients reported sniffing buprenorphine after having initiated treatment. After multivariate analysis, 4 variables remained significantly associated with buprenorphine sniffing: not living in a stable relationship, having had only one or no parents during childhood, a history of drug sniffing and dissatisfaction with buprenorphine treatment.

Conclusions

Our findings underline the need to address these patients to appropriate social and mental services as well as diversifying therapeutic options, in order to provide them with adequate care and minimize diversion. The issues highlighted in the study reflect the need for recommendations for physicians prescribing OST in primary care to consider buprenorphine diversion during treatment more as non-adherence behavior than an abuse.     

Test-retest variability of eustachian tube responses in children with persistent middle ear effusion

Summary In our previous studies on eustachian tube function in children with middle ear effusion, we found that many ears were evacuated by the act of sniffing. When subjects were tested repeatedly, however, responses to sniffing were very variable. In order to study the spontaneous variability, a total of 51 subjects (81 ears) were retested. The results of the retest were very similar to those of the first test when all the ears were considered as a group. However, in individual ears pronounced variability was seen. In the sniff test, responses changed qualitatively in 30% of the ears, and in 27% of the ears there was a change in the ability to equalize pressure by swallowing. Thus, the results of the group were highly reproducible, while at the same time individual results were highly variable with time.     

Sigma<Subscript>1</Subscript> receptor antagonists determine the behavioral pattern of the methamphetamine-induced stereotypy in mice

Objective  The effects of sigma receptor antagonists on methamphetamine (METH)-induced stereotypy have not been examined. We examined the effects of sigma antagonists on METH-induced stereotypy in mice. Results  The administration of METH (10 mg/kg) to male ddY mice induced stereotyped behavior consisting of biting (90.1%), sniffing (4.2%), head bobbing (4.1%), and circling (1.7%) during an observation period of 1 h. Pretreatment of the mice with BMY 14802 (α-(4-fluorophenyl)-4-(5-fluoro-2-pyrimidinyl)-1-piperazinebutanol; 1, 5, and 10 mg/kg), a non-specific sigma receptor antagonist, significantly increased METH-induced sniffing (19.2%, 30.5%, and 43.8% of total stereotypical behavior) but decreased biting (76.6%, 66.9%, and 49.3% of total stereotypical behavior) in a dose-dependent manner. This response was completely abolished by (+)-SKF 10,047 ([2S-(2α,6α,11R)]-1,2,3,4,5,6-hexahydro-6,11-dimethyl-3-(2-propenyl)-2,6-methano-3-benzazocin-8-ol; 4 and 10 mg/kg), a putative sigma₁ receptor agonist, and partially by PB 28 (1-cyclohexyl-4-[3-(1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-5-methoxy-1-naphthalen-1-yl)-n-propyl]piperazine; 1 and 10 mg/kg), a putative sigma₂ receptor agonist. The BMY 14802 action on METH-induced stereotypy was mimicked by BD 1047 (N-[2-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)ethyl]-N-methyl-2-(dimethylamino)ethylamine; 10 mg/kg), a putative sigma₁ receptor antagonist, but not by SM-21 ((±)-tropanyl 2-(4-chlorophenoxy)butanoate; 1 mg/kg), a putative sigma₂ receptor antagonist. The BD 1047 effect on METH-induced stereotypy was also abolished completely by (+)-SKF 10,047 and partially by PB 28. The overall frequency of METH-induced stereotypical behavior was unchanged with these sigma receptor ligands, despite the alteration in particular behavioral patterns. The BMY 14802 action on METH-induced stereotypy was unaffected by pretreatment with centrally acting histamine H₁ receptor antagonists (pyrilamine or ketotifen, 10 mg/kg), suggesting that these effects are independent of histamine H₁ receptor signaling systems. Conclusion  In summary, modulation of central sigma₁ receptors alters the pattern of METH-induced stereotypy, producing a shift from stereotypical biting to stereotypical sniffing, without affecting the overall frequency of stereotypical behavior. J. Kitanaka and N. Kitanaka contributed equally to this work.