The music of speech: music training facilitates pitch processing in both music and language

The main aim of the present experiment was to determine whether extensive musical training facilitates pitch contour processing not only in music but also in language. We used a parametric manipulation of final notes' or words' fundamental frequency (F0), and we recorded behavioral and electrophysiological data to examine the precise time course of pitch processing. We compared professional musicians and nonmusicians. Results revealed that within both domains, musicians detected weak F0 manipulations better than nonmusicians. Moreover, F0 manipulations within both music and language elicited similar variations in brain electrical potentials, with overall shorter onset latency for musicians than for nonmusicians. Finally, the scalp distribution of an early negativity in the linguistic task varied with musical expertise, being largest over temporal sites bilaterally for musicians and largest centrally and over left temporal sites for nonmusicians. These results are taken as evidence that extensive musical training influences the perception of pitch contour in spoken language.     

Absolute pitch and pupillary response: effects of timbre and key color

The pitch identification performance of absolute pitch possessors has previously been shown to depend on pitch range, key color, and timbre of presented tones. In the present study, the dependence of pitch identification performance on key color and timbre of musical tones was examined by analyzing hit rates, reaction times, and pupillary responses of absolute pitch possessors (n = 9) and nonpossessors (n = 12) during a pitch identification task. Results revealed a significant dependence of pitch identification hit rate but not reaction time on timbre and key color in both groups. Among absolute pitch possessors, peak dilation of the pupil was significantly dependent on key color whereas the effect of timbre was marginally significant. Peak dilation of the pupil differed significantly between absolute pitch possessors and nonpossessors. The observed effects point to the importance of learning factors in the acquisition of absolute pitch.     

正常与病态下嗓音的客观指标的评价

对158例正常人和136例各种喉疾病患者连续元音[i]发声时的平均气流率、声强、频率、频率微扰商和发声效率同步进行了测定.并对各测定指标间的相互关系进行了探讨.频率微扰商是表示连续元音发声时声带振动相邻周期间的微细变动量;发声效率反映平均气流率与声能的有效转换率.在低、中和高强度发声时.随发声强度的提高,平均气流率.频率和发声效率随之提高而频率微扰商则变小.中等声强发声时.平均气流率与声强,声强与频率均呈正相关;而平均气流率与发声效率.声强(男性)和频率(女性)与频率微扰商均呈负相关.多数喉疾病患者显示出较正常人高的平均气流率和频率微扰商,发声效率则降低.当声强和频率作为参考指标时,平均气流率,频率微扰商和发声效率可作为评价喉发声功能的客观、定量指标.     

人工耳蜗植入者音乐感知能力的初步研究

目的　建立测试人工耳蜗植入者音乐感知能力的体系 ,研究语后聋成人和语前聋儿童人工耳蜗植入后对音乐感知的能力。方法　构建测试用的标准钢琴音调和乐曲测试素材库 ,运用该素材库在CakewalkPro 8.0平台上进行音调和乐曲的感知能力测试 ,测试对象包括已植入多导人工耳蜗的 2名语后聋成人、8名语前聋儿童和各自的正常对照组。结果　建立了一个可用于人工耳蜗植入者音乐感知能力测试的系统。音调差异感知阈 (df/f)在植入人工耳蜗的语后聋成人和语前聋儿童分别为 7.78%± 6 .6 3%和 14 .4 9%± 11.2 0 % ,与各自正常人对照组比较有显著性差异 ;但两组间无显著性差异。植入人工耳蜗的语后聋成人在熟悉乐曲测试中 ,对正确乐曲的感知差异度为 - 2 .75± 0 .35 (半音 ) ,离散度为 1.5 0± 0 .71(半音 ) ,都与正常成人有显著性差异。结论　运用数字音乐技术和MIDI软件建立的这一测试系统能够方便的测试人工耳蜗植入者的音乐感知能力。人工耳蜗植入者音乐感知能力不及正常人     

Some Systematic Observations on Monaural Diplacusis

Anomalies of monaural pitch perception, including pitch changes with level, roughness and beats, were mapped in the intensity-frequency plane by a listener using continuous-tone stimulation between approximately 1 900 and 2 750 Hz. A narrow region characterized by rapid threshold adaptation was also mapped between approximately 2 590 and 2 690 Hz.

In the procedure used to localize the internally generated tones, which were interacting with the externally presented single tones to produce beats, the listener adjusted the frequency of a signal presented to his right ear so that the beat rate heard there was the same as a criterion beat rate produced by two external tones in his left ear. A plot in the intensity-frequency plane of adjustments for a constant-beat rate revealed a remarkable correspondence to the region of adaptation (between 2 590 and 2 690 Hz) in that the former curve was simply shifted in frequency away from the latter by an amount equal to the two-tone interval producing the beat rate. Thus, the locations of ‘internal tones’ correspond predictably to both the lower and upper-frequency boundaries of the region of adaptation.

Pitch changes, as a function of signal level, at frequencies below the region of adaptation were also investigated and appear to reflect a change from interaction to cessation of interaction between the signal and the region of adaptation.

The locus of these pitch-related abnormalities, over a broad range of frequencies, points to interaction between that range and a smaller-frequency region where abrupt transitions in sensitivity occur.

Chez un sujet présentant une diplacousie monaurale, nous avons effectué trois sortes d'expériences (chacune fut répétée plusieurs fois et donna des résultats similaires): 1) Nous avons tout d'abord établi, une »carte« des caractéres de la hauteur subjective des sons en fonction de l'intensité et de la fréquence, faisant notamment apparaiˇtre: une zone de non-réponse (zone d'adaptation rapide au seuil entre 2 590 et 2 690 Hz) et deux zones de battements, de rudesse, de changement de la hauteur subjective en fonction de l'intensité entre 1 900 et 2 750 Hz. 2) Les ajustements faits par le sujet ont fait apparaiˇtre, en fonction de l'intensité, des plages fréquentielles donnant des battements égaux à des battements induits dans l'oreille opposéed; et nous avons alors constaté qu'avec l'augmentation de l'intensité, les plages fréquentielles situées au-dessus de la zone de non-réponse se déplaçaient vers les fréquences élevées et les plages situées au-dessous, vers les fréquences basses. Apparait ainsi, en fonction de l'intensité, la variation de la fréquence effective de ce que l'on pourrait appeler »un son interne« (nécessaire, avec un son externe, pour créer un battement); d'où une localisation prévisible des sons internes aux limites de la zone de non-réponse (zone d'adaptation). 3) Dans une troisième série d'expériences, nous avons cherché à comprendre pourquoi des changements brusques de tonie vers le bas apparaissaient lorsque des sons externes entre 1 900 et 2 500 Hz étaient présentés avec une augmentation de niveau. II semble que cet abaissement de la tonie soit du, lorsque le niveau augmente, à la disparition d'un composant de fréquence élevée, probablement un son »interne« au voisinage de la zone d'adaptation.

En conclusion, la localisation, chez le sujet, de tous les troubles de la sensation de hauteur le long d'une zone fréquentielle (1 900-2 750 Hz) correspondant à la zone la plus abrupte de sa courbe audiométrique, met en évidence l'existence d'une interaction entre cette zone fréquentielle et une plus petite région fréquentielle (2 590-2 960 Hz) dans la-quelle surviennent de brusques changements de sensibilité (région d'adaptation); cette interaction nous apparaiˇt ětre à la base des troubles.     

Place and Time Coding of Frequency in the Peripheral Auditory System: Some Physiological Pros and Cons

Evidence for and against classical theories of ‘place’ and ‘period’ mechanisms for the coding of frequency, and the modifications of the theories invoked to account for the pitch of ‘residue’ and other types of stimuli, are examined in the light of physiological data. These include new data on the temporal discharge patterns of cochlear nerve fibres under stimulation with two-tone complexes, harmonic and inharmonic three-tone complexes, and five-tone complexes of differing relative phase. They show, in particular, that certain arguments against ‘period’ coding of ‘residue’ pitch are invalid. The interspike intervals in the discharge patterns of cochlear fibres under these conditions are consistent with the pitches heard. On the other hand, the classical ‘period’ theory needs to be modified to take into account the normally relatively sharp frequency selectivity of cochlear fibres, and requires certain inefficiencies on the part of the central processor for pitch.

Comparison of measures of cochlear fibre frequency selectivity with analogous psychophysical data in man, including those on the ‘existence region’ of ‘residue’ pitch, suggests that ‘residue’-type stimuli judged to be tonal in quality could both: (a) be sufficiently resolved spectrally at the cochlear fibre level to serve as input to any of the current spectral ‘pattern recognition’ mechanisms proposed for the pitch extraction of complex signals, and also, (b) could generate patterns of temporal discharge reflecting enough waveform interaction between the harmonics to convey the pitch heard, because of the shape of the cochlear filters. (This conclusion might have to be qualified in the light of further physiological experiments on the ‘second effect’ of pitch shift.)

The present evidence, both psychophysical and physiological, suggests the following synthesis: musical interval recognition and relatively crude frequency discrimination can be accomplished by trained observers on signals where the frequency appears to be coded exclusively in terms of temporal information. However, the pitch quality of these signals is judged to be poor or absent. Likewise, signals, apparently coded exclusively by ‘place’ mechanisms, while having tonality, allow relatively crude frequency discrimination and judgment of musical intervals. With the possible exception of psychophysical data on the phenomenon of diplacusis, the present evidence cannot exclude the possibility that the central pitch extractor mechanism utilizes both the ‘place’ and ‘period’ cues produced by pure-tone signals (below 5 kHz) and ‘residue’-type signals, both signals evoking strong pitch and fine acuity of frequency discrimination. The degree of salience of a signal's pitch could well depend on the coherence of the two types of cue.

However, the greatest obstacle to the acceptance of ‘place’ coding mechanisms for frequency, particularly of the frequency components of a complex sound, is the restricted dynamic range of the peripheral elements of the auditory nervous system. Because of this, it is not clear how differences in the spectral energy distribution in signals at medium to high sound levels can be established in terms of patterns of mean discharge rate across the cochlear fibre array. At high sound levels, physiological evidence suggests that the discharge rates of the majority of stimulated fibres will be saturated, whereas psychophysical evidence suggests that the coding of the frequency and the relative level of even single-component signals can be carried out over a wide dynamic range in the absence of cues derived from spread of activity across the fibre array. Some new data, however, indicate that this problem may be circumvented at the cochlear nucleus level, but the coding mechanisms involved at the primary neurone level are obscure. One intriguing possibility exists that the auditory nervous system may utilize the fine temporal structure of cochlear fibre discharge patterns for the transmission of ‘place’ information.     

A cochlear implant user with exceptional musical hearing ability

Abstract

Although the perception of music is generally poor in cochlear implant users, there are a few excellent performers. Objective: The aim of this study was the assessment of different aspects of music perception in one exceptional cochlear implant user. Design: The assessments included pitch direction discrimination, melody and timbre recognition, relative and absolute pitch judgment, and consonance rating of musical notes presented through the sound processor(s). Study sample: An adult cochlear implant user with musical background who lost her hearing postlingually, and five normally-hearing listeners with musical training participated in the study. Results: The CI user discriminated pitch direction for sounds differing by one semitone and recognized melody with nearly 100% accuracy. Her results in timbre recognition were better than average published data for cochlear implant users. Her consonance rating, and relative and absolute pitch perception were comparable to normally-hearing listeners with musical training. Conclusion: The results in this study showed that excellent performance is possible on musical perception tasks including pitch perception using present day cochlear implant technologies. Factors that may explain this user's exceptional performance are short duration of deafness, pre- and post-deafness musical training, and perfect pitch abilities before the onset of deafness.     

The relationship between tinnitus pitch and the audiogram

We studied the relationship between tinnitus pitch and the audiogram in 195 patients. Patients with tone-like tinnitus reported a higher pitch (mean = 5385 Hz) compared to those with a noise-like quality (mean = 3266 Hz). Those with a flat audiogram were more likely to report: a noise-like tinnitus, a unilateral tinnitus, and have a pitch < 2000 Hz. The average duration of bilateral tinnitus (12 years) was longer than that of unilateral tinnitus (5 years). Older subjects reported a less severe tinnitus handicap questionnaire score. Patients with a notched audiogram often reported a pitch ≤8000 Hz. Subjects with normal hearing up to 8000 Hz tended to have a pitch ≥8000 Hz. We failed to find a relationship between the pitch and the edge of a high frequency hearing loss. Some individuals did exhibit a pitch at the low frequency edge of a hearing loss, but we could find no similar characteristics among these subjects. It is possible that a relationship between pitch and audiogram is present only in certain subgroups.     

Superior discrimination of speech pitch and its relationship to verbal ability in autism spectrum disorders

Whilst hypersensitivity to pitch information appears to be characteristic of many individuals with autism spectrum disorders little is known about the implications of such a tendency for language acquisition and development. Discrimination of systematically varied pitch differences between pairs of words, nonwords, and nonspeech pitch contour analogues was assessed in children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) and matched controls. The findings revealed superior performance in ASD, although, like controls, discrimination of pitch in speech stimuli was poorer in this group than for nonspeech stimuli. Whilst it was hypothesized that enhanced processing of speech pitch would correlate negatively with receptive language skills in ASD, the findings did not fully support this, and enhanced discrimination skills were observed in individuals without significant language impairment. The implications of these findings for understanding heterogeneity of language ability in ASD are discussed.     

The role of beat gesture and pitch accent in semantic processing: An ERP study

The present study investigated whether and how beat gesture (small baton-like hand movements used to emphasize information in speech) influences semantic processing as well as its interaction with pitch accent during speech comprehension. Event-related potentials were recorded as participants watched videos of a person gesturing and speaking simultaneously. The critical words in the spoken sentences were accompanied by a beat gesture, a control hand movement, or no hand movement, and were expressed either with or without pitch accent. We found that both beat gesture and control hand movement induced smaller negativities in the N400 time window than when no hand movement was presented. The reduced N400s indicate that both beat gesture and control movement facilitated the semantic integration of the critical word into the sentence context. In addition, the words accompanied by beat gesture elicited smaller negativities in the N400 time window than those accompanied by control hand movement over right posterior electrodes, suggesting that beat gesture has a unique role for enhancing semantic processing during speech comprehension. Finally, no interaction was observed between beat gesture and pitch accent, indicating that they affect semantic processing independently.