Mutation screening and CAG repeat length analysis of the androgen receptor gene in Klinefelter's syndrome patients with and without spermatogenesis

BACKGROUND: Mutations of the androgen receptor (AR) gene give rise to a wide array of phenotypic abnormalities. A systematic analysis of the AR gene in patients with 47,XXY has not previously been performed. METHODS: Mutations of the AR gene and expansion of the CAG repeats in exon 1 of the AR gene were studied in 13 patients with Klinefelter's syndrome either with (n = 1) or without (n = 12) spermatogenesis. RESULTS: No abnormalities in the AR gene were detected by single strand conformational polymorphism analysis. The CAG lengths ranged from 17 to 27 (mean +/- SD 22.8 +/- 3.3, median 23) for Klinefelter patients or from 17 to 28 (mean +/- SD 23.2 +/- 2.6, median 23) for control subjects. X-inactivation analysis for the methylation status of the AR gene was performed in seven patients who were heterozygous for CAG repeats of different length, showing that the longer CAG repeat alleles underwent random but more frequent inactivation in five patients and skewed inactivation in two. CONCLUSIONS: An AR gene abnormality does not constitute an important factor for impaired spermatogenesis in patients with Klinefelter's syndrome.     

Relationship between X-inactivation and clinical involvement in Fabry heterozygotes. Eleven novel mutations in the α-galactosidase A gene in the Czech and Slovak population

We have identified 21 different -galactosidase A gene (GLA) mutations in 22 unrelated Czech and Slovak families with Fabry disease. Eleven of these mutations were novel (point mutations D93N, A135V, D155H, G171R, Q280K, G360S, Q330X, splicing errors c.194ins14, c.801ins36 and deletions c.674_732del59, g.3405_6021del2617). Genotyping of family members for family-specific mutations revealed 55 heterozygotes that manifested clinical symptoms of different severity. To examine the contribution of X-inactivation skewing to disease manifestation in Fabry heterozygotes, we have adopted the Mainz severity scoring scheme and compared the score values with the X-inactivation status in 39 carriers in an age-dependent manner. The age-score trendline of Fabry females who had a predominantly inactivated X-chromosome bearing a wild-type GLA allele (10 of 38 females) was markedly steeper than in the rest of the cohort. One female carrier with an inactivated mutated allele had a low score value when compared to the other heterozygotes of the same age. These data suggest that X-inactivation is indeed a major factor determining the severity of clinical involvement in Fabry heterozygotes. There was a statistically significant difference between the severity score values of heterozygotes with random and non-random X-chromosome inactivation at the 5% level of significance. Further studies will show if the degree of the wildtype allele inactivation will be useful as a predictive marker of severity of phenotype in Fabry heterozygotes. Although the correlation between X-inactivation skewing and presentation of the disease in Fabry heterozygotes has previously been suggested in the literature, this report is among the first attempts to examine this relationship systematically.     

Androgen receptor gene and sex-specific Alzheimer's disease

Women are at a 2-fold risk of developing late-onset Alzheimer's disease (AD) (onset at 65 years of age or older) compared with men. During perimenopausal years, women undergo hormonal changes that are accompanied by metabolic, cardiovascular, and inflammatory changes. These all together have been suggested as risk factors for late-onset AD. However, not all perimenopausal women develop AD; we hypothesize that certain genetic factors might underlie the increased susceptibility for developing AD in postmenopausal women. We investigated the Androgen Receptor gene (AR) in a clinical cohort of male and female AD patients and normal control subjects by sequencing all coding exons and evaluating the length and distribution of the CAG repeat in exon 1. We could not establish a correlation between the repeat length, sex, and the disease status, nor did we identify possible pathogenic variants. AR is located on the X chromosome; to assess its role in AD, X-inactivation patterns will need to be studied to directly correlate the actual expressed repeat length to a possible sex-specific phenotypic effect.     

Cognitive function in Coffin-Lowry syndrome

Coffin-Lowry syndrome (CLS) is an X-linked disorder associated with mental retardation, distinctive facies and hands, hypotonia, and skeletal abnormalities. The syndrome results from mutations in the RSK2 gene located in Xp22.2. Although the syndrome has been elucidated clinically, few, if any, studies have focused on the cognitive deficits of the affected males or carrier females. The subjects of the present study were selected from two African-American families who have the same missense mutation (C340T) in RSK2. The subjects included six affected males, seven carrier females, three normal males and three non-carrier (normal) females. Normal family members served as contrast/comparison cohorts to control for socio-economic, sociocultural and genetic variables which would impinge on intellectual abilities. Analysis of cognitive function, as measured by the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale, 4th edn, demonstrated a distinct hierarchy of abilities from normal to carrier to affected patients. The mean composite IQs of the cohorts were 90.8, 65.0 and 43.2 for normal, carrier and affected individuals, respectively. These findings lend support to the clinical concept of negative intellectual effects in carriers of certain X-linked mental retardation conditions. X-inactivation studies showed that carrier females had mild to significant skewing. Normal females in the family did not demonstrate skewing. The correlation coefficient between IQ and X-inactivation status among carriers was not significant.     

年龄和组织类型对X连锁Alport综合征女性患者X染色体失活方式的影响

目的探讨不同年龄和组织类型对X连锁Alport综合征（XLAS）女性患者X染色体失活方式的影响。方法纳入1997年1月至2006年12月北京大学第一医院（我院）儿科肾脏病遗传门诊就诊符合XLAS诊断标准的家系。根据年龄,将XLAS家系中女性患者分为两组,年龄≤30岁为A组,年龄〉30岁为B组。采集患者及其家属静脉血3mL,盐析法提取淋巴细胞基因组DNA。对家系中的女性患者在前臂下1/3处进行皮肤活检,并进行成纤维细胞培养。通过PCR扩增雄性激素受体（AR）基因第一外显子CAG重复序列的多肽性分析X染色体失活。每一标本X染色体失活分析均检测2次,取其平均值用于两组X染色体失活的差异分析,以X染色体失活率≥80%作为X染色体失活倾斜的标准。结果研究期间我院儿科肾脏病遗传门诊共诊断XLAS家系186个,符合纳入和排除标准的XLAS家系共32个,包括36例女性患者,32例男性患者。A组和B组分别为13和23例,平均年龄分别为（17.9±11.7）和（38.6±6.2）岁。①36例女性患者中,外周血中AR基因位点杂合者32例,异质性为88.9%;AR基因位点纯合者4例。外周血中X染色体失活倾斜比例为12.5%（4/32例）,其中A组0例,B组4/20例（20.0%）,两组差异无统计学意义（χ2=2.743,P=0.098）。②12例女性患者同时分析外周血和皮肤成纤维细胞X染色体失活,结果显示两种组织中X染色体失活方式明显不同,3例患者仅皮肤成纤维细胞显示为X染色体失活倾斜而外周血无失活倾斜;1例外周血显示X染色体失活倾斜而皮肤成纤维细胞无失活倾斜。7/12例（58.3%）患者两种组织中以同一条X染色体失活为主;5/12例（41.7%）患者则相反,两种组织间X染色体失活明显不同。结论不同组织类型而不是年龄可影响XLAS女性患者的X染色体失活方式,这可能是有关XLAS女性患者和X染色体失活研究结果不一致的一个主要原因。     

Neither uniparental disomy nor skewed X-inactivation explains Rett syndrome

Webb T, Watkiss E, Woods CG. Neither uniparental disomy nor skewed X-inactivation explains Rett syndrome.
Clin Genet 1993: 44: 236–240. © Munksgaard, 1993
The locus DXS255 was studied using the probe M27β in ten probands with Rett syndrome and in eight of their families. No evidence of uniparental disomy of the X chromosome was detected, as all informative probands had inherited an allele from each of their parents. Differential methylation of a CCGG site within the DXS255 locus as shown by digestion with Mspl/Hpall, revealed moderate skewing of X-inactivation favouring the maternal allele in two of the probands. Random X-inactivation was present in all mothers tested and in two unaffected sisters. Three of four unaffected siblings had inherited the same maternal allele at DXS255.     

Sex determining gene on the X chromosome short arm: Dosage sensitive sex reversal

The present review article summarizes current knowledge concerning the sex determining gene on Xp21, termed DSS (dosage sensitive sex reversal). The presence of DSS has been based on the finding that, in the presence of SRY, partial active Xp duplications encompassing the middle part of Xp result in sex reversal, whereas those of the distal or proximal part of Xp permit male sex development. Because Klinefelter patients develop as males, it is believed that DSS is normally subject to X-inactivation, and that two active copies of DSS override the function of SRY, resulting in gonadal dysgenesis because of meiotic pairing failure. It may be possible that DSS encodes a target sequence for repressing function of SRY or that DSS is involved in an X chromosome-counting mechanism. Molecular approaches have localized DSS to a 160 kb region and isolated candidate genes such as DAX-1 and MAGE-Xp, but there has been no formal evidence equating the candidate gene with DSS. In addition to its clinical importance, the exploration of DSS must provide a useful clue to phylogenetic studies of sex chromosomes and dosage compensation.     

Female twin with hunter disease due to nonrandom inactivation of the X-chromosome: A consequence of twinning

We report the occurrence of Hunter disease (mucopolysaccharidosis type II) in a karyotypically normal girl who was one of identical twins. Molecular studies showed nonrandom X-inactivation in both her fibroblasts and lymphocytes, while her normal twin showed equal usage of both X chromosomes. In view of previous reports of 7 pairs of identical female twins in which one had Duchenne muscular dystrophy, it seems that twinning may be strongly associated with nonrandom X-inactivation, and is not specific to the properties of the disease causing gene. © 1992 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Iridocorneal adhesions in patients with the Marfan syndrome

Marfan syndrome is an autosomal dominant connective tissue disorder characterized by skeletal, cardiovascular, and ocular anomalies. Ectopia lentis is the most common ocular manifestation. We report an ocular sign not previously described in Marfan syndrome, iridocorneal adhesions secondary to anterior lens subluxation. Three patients with the Marfan syndrome had iridocorneal adhesions on slit-lamp examination. One patient developed adhesions following treatment with pilocarpine. She underwent pars plana vitrectomy and lensectomy in both eyes due to progression of the iridocorneal adhesions. Treatment with miotics rotates the lens-iris diaphragm anteriorly and may contribute to the formation of such adhesions. The two other patients remained stable and did not received lensectomy or vitrectomy. Careful slit-lamp examination of the anterior segment should be conducted in patients with dislocated lenses.