Perceptions of Parenting and Depression-Proneness in the Offspring: Dysfunctional Attitudes as a Mediating Mechanism

This research attempted to clarifythe mechanismthrough which dysfunctional parenting leads todepression in the offspring. Consistent with theorizingbyBeck (1967), we tested a three-stage causal pathway wherein dysfunctional parenting should giverise to dysfunctional attitudes in the offspring which,in turn, should give rise to depression-proneness in theoffspring. Another objective of this study was to further delineate the types of parentingbehaviors that give rise to dysfunctional attitudes inthe offspring. To this end, a large sample of collegestudents (N = 246) completed measures assessing four parenting dimensions (i.e., low care,overprotection, perfectionistic expectations, andcriticalness) as well as measures assessingdysfunctional attitudes, general depression-proneness,and current depression. Support for the depressogenic effects of allfour parenting dimensions was obtained in that eachparenting dimension correlated significantly withdysfunctional attitudes and depression tendencies in the offspring. Moreover, path analyses supportedBeck's three-stage causal model with perfectionistic andcritical parenting playing a particularly prominentrole. Last, after controlling for current depression, the partial correlations among the variables inthe three-stage model remained significant, suggestingthat the present findings were not simply the result ofa mood congruency effect. These findings illuminate additional parenting behaviors that can havedepressogenic effects and indicate that these parentingbehaviors exert their effects, at least in part, by wayof instilling dysfunctional attitudes in the offspring.     

Use of current situational information and causal inference: Do dysphoric individuals make “unwarranted” causal inferences?

According to Beck's original theory, depressives make unwarranted negatively biased personal inferences. Specifically, Beck suggested that depressives ignore current positive situational information and are unduly influenced by current negative situational information in making inferences. To test Beck's theory, we used Kelley's normative model of causal inference to examine the utilization of causally relevant situational information by dysphoric, nondepressed, and very nondepressed subjects in making causal attributions for personal success and failure. We used Stevens and Jones' classic method from social psychology and embedded the relevant causal information in the natural flow of events. Results showed that dysphoric, nondepressed, and very nondepressed subjects did, to an equal degree, use such information to make causal attributions. Although dysphoric and both groups of nondepressed subjects used current situational information consistently with Kelley's model, clear-cut baseline differences in the content of their causal attributions existed. Thus, the results supported the reformulations of Beck's theory that emphasize content, rather than process, differences between depressive and nondepressive cognition for dysphoria.Preparation of this article was supported by a Vilas Award, a University of Wisconsin Graduate School Grant, a Romnes Fellowship, a Biomedical Grant, and NIMH Grant R01MH43866 to Lyn Y. Abramson.     

The effects of aging on the P3 component of the visual event-related potential

Visual stimuli were used to elicit ERPs in 108 normal subjects ranging in age from 8 to 90 years. Age-related differences were found for both P3 latency and amplitude. Children and elderly adults were found to have the latest P3s. The earliest P3s were found in subjects in their twenties. A curvilinear function best described the P3 latency/age relationship. Also, small but significant differences were observed between males and females in P3 latency. The relationship between P3 amplitude and age was strongly influenced by scalp location. P3 was largest at posterior electrode sites, but was not visible at frontal sites in young children. With increasing age P3 decreased in amplitude at the posterior sites and increased in amplitude at more frontal locations.     

Physiological concomitants of affect during psychiatric interviews

Lexically derived affects were related to skin resistance, heart rate, and muscle potentials in nine psychiatric patients during three recording sessions over a three month span. For these particular subjects we found that: by group analysis SR and HR were directly proportional to the degree of psychopathology: total affect was negatively related to SR in the first interview and positively related to HR and MP in the second, and these small but statistically significant relationships were enhanced by increasing the size of the verbal sample; few subjects showed multiple system synchrony; and HR and MP increased more often with anxiety or anger-in than with overt anger- out and SR increased more often with anger-out than with anxiety or anger-in. We confirmed our previous observations that: physiological measures are singly considerably consistent for individuals; physiological patterns and psychophysiological patterns are considerably variable within and between individuals. Although we found some specificity of physiological patterns for anxiety, anger-out and anger-in, we proposed that these were secondary relationships, with both affect and pattern primarily related to a hypothetical degree of central integration. We proposed an hypothesis that: peripheral physiological patterns, to the extent that they are subject to psychological influence, are related to the degree of involvement with an object and the position of that object in psychological space.     

Obtainment of polyclonal antibodies to clenbuterol with the use of colloidal gold

The effectiveness of an in vivo synthesis of antibodies to clenbuterol with the use of gold nanoparticles as a carrier was evaluated. For comparison, conjugates of clenbuterol with bovine serum albumin were used in immunization. The serum titer was determined by an ELISA. The antibodies were tested by an immunodot assay with immunogold markers. With both techniques we obtained specific and relatively high-titer antibodies to clenbuterol. It was found that the antibodies obtained with the use of gold nanoparticles were not inferior in titer to those obtained to the conjugates of clenbuterol with the protein but surpassed them in specificity.     

Depression and negative processing of evaluative feedback

Beck's cognitive behavioral model of depression served to predict that depressed college students would negatively bias their processing of evaluative feedback relative to nondepressed college students. Depressed and nondepressed students performed a dot estimation task and received good, average, poor, or ambiguous feedback following each of 40 trials. Half of each subject group also received feedback under conditions of high or low task importance to assess the generality of depressive biasing tendencies. Analyses revealed significant negative processing biases among depressives relative to nondepressives in immediate perception and latencies of response to feedback stimuli during the latter 20 feedback presentations but not in response to earlier feedback trials. In addition, biases in the immediate perception of feedback stimuli were most pronounced under ambiguous feedback conditions. No differences were observed between depressives and nondepressives in the long-term recall of evaluative feedback, and measures of bias were not significantly affected by the perceived importance of the experimental task. Explanations are offered for the specificity of the findings obtained.The research in this article was conducted while the first author was supported by a National Science Foundation Graduate Fellowship. The authors would like to thank David Berman, Mindy Perlman, and Carol Reinsel for their help in data collection, and Ken Knoblauch and Denise Varner for their technical assistance.     

P300 in major depressive disorder

This study presents evidence of differences in the P₃ (P₃₀₀) component of the event-related potential (ERP) between major depressed patients and normal controls. ERPs were collected to visual stimuli in a modified continuous performance task. For each subject, the peak of the P₃ (also N₂ and P₂) component was identified for four different electrode sites and three trial types (target, background, and unexpected). P₃ amplitude was significantly smaller in the depressed group to target, but not to background stimuli. P₃ latency differences were for the most part nonsignificant. Recent evidence suggests that P₃ amplitude may not only reflect higher level cognitive functions, but also some degree of emotional involvement for the subject. It is suggested that a decrease in task involvement could account for the smaller P₃ in depressives.     

Effects of reward and methylphenidate on heart rate response morphology of augmenting and reducing children

In a group of attention and/or learning disordered children referred for a trial on methylphenidate, beat-to-beat analysis of heart rate (HR) to auditory stimuli showed the response to be affected by stimulus intensity, reward level, and drug condition (placebo or active). When the children were classified as augmenters or reducers on the basis of their event-related potentials to the 4 intensity levels, the reducers had significantly higher pretreatment HR response levels as well as quicker latencies to reach deceleration trough (anticipatory component) and acceleratory peak (rebound rise to the tones). The clinically titrated methylphenidate dosage levels for the subjects were related both to the augmenter-reducer classification and to pretreatment HR levels; that is, subjects who were ERP reducers and/or had higher HR levels, especially under reward conditions, were blindly titrated at higher levels than those who were augmenters and/or had lower HR levels.