Is the blood pressure of South Asian adults in the UK higher or lower than that in European white adults? A review of cross-sectional data

The objective of the study was to review published evidence on whether blood pressure levels and the prevalence of hypertension are higher or lower in South Asian adults living in the UK as compared to white populations. A systematic literature review was carried out using MEDLINE 1966-2001, EMBASE 1980-2001, and citations from references. A total of 12 studies were identified. The data showed important differences between studies in terms of age and sex of samples, definition of South Asians (Indian, Pakistani and Bangladeshi) and methods of evaluating blood pressure. Seven studies reported lower mean systolic blood pressures, while seven studies showed higher diastolic pressures in South Asian men compared to white men. In women, six of nine studies showed lower systolic blood pressures, while five reported higher diastolic pressures. For prevalence of hypertension, five of 10 studies reported higher rates in South Asian men than in white men. Two of six studies showed higher prevalence rates in South Asian women. Overall, the most representative sample and up-to-date data came from the Health Survey of England 1999. Both blood pressure and the prevalence data show important differences between South Asian subgroups, yet most studies combined them. The data also showed a geographical variation between London (comparatively high blood pressure in South Asians) and the rest of the UK (comparatively low or similar blood pressure). Bangladeshis had low blood pressure and body mass index (BMI). In other South Asian subgroups, low blood pressure and the low BMI did not always coincide. To conclude, the common perception that blood pressure in South Asians is comparatively high is unreliable-the picture is complex. Overall, blood pressures are similar but there is stark heterogeneity in the South Asian groups, with slightly higher blood pressure in Indians, slightly lower blood pressure in Pakistanis, and much lower blood pressure in Bangladeshis. Variations in study methods, body shape, size and fat, and in the mix of South Asian groups probably explain much of the inconsistency in the results.     

Keeping newborns warm: beliefs,practices and potential for behaviour change in rural Ghana

Objectives This study aimed to collect data on thermal care practices in rural Ghana to inform the design of a community newborn intervention. Methods All 635 women who delivered in six districts in Ghana in the first 2 weeks of December 2006 were interviewed about immediate newborn care. Qualitative data on thermal care practices and barriers and facilitators to behaviour change were collected from recently delivered/pregnant women, birth attendants/grandmothers, and husband through birth narratives, in‐depth interviews and focus group discussion. Results Respondents knew that keeping the baby warm was essential for health but 71% of babies born at home had delayed drying, 79% delayed wrapping, 93% early bathing and 10% were placed skin‐to‐skin. Birth attendants were usually in charge of mother and baby immediately after birth. Delays in drying/wrapping were linked to leaving the baby unattended until the placenta was delivered. Early bathing was linked to reducing body odour in later life, shaping the baby’s head, and helping the baby sleep and feel clean. Respondents thought that changing bathing behaviours would be difficult, especially as babies are bathed early in facilities. The concept of skin‐to‐skin care was easily understood and most women said they would try it if it was good for the baby. Conclusion Thermal care is a key component of community newborn interventions, the design of which should be based on an understanding of current behaviours and beliefs. Formative research can help select focus behaviours, decide who to include in interventions, ensure consistent messages and determine what messages and approaches are needed to overcome behaviour change barriers.     

The utility of ‘country of birth’ for the classification of ethnic groups in health research: the Dutch experience

The relationship between ethnicity and health is attracting increasing attention in international health research. Different measures are used to operationalise the concept of ethnicity. Presently, self-definition of ethnicity seems to gain favour. In contrast, in the Netherlands, the use of country of birth criteria have been widely accepted as a basis for the identification of ethnic groups. In this paper, we will discuss its advantages as well as its limitations and the solutions to these limitations from the Dutch perspective with a special focus on survey studies.

The country of birth indicator has the advantage of being objective and stable, allowing for comparisons over time and between studies. Inclusion of parental country of birth provides an additional advantage for identifying the second-generation ethnic groups. The main criticisms of this indicator seem to refer to its validity. The basis for this criticism is, firstly, the argument that people who are born in the same country might have a different ethnic background. In the Dutch context, this limitation can be addressed by the employment of additional indicators such as geographical origin, language, and self-identified ethnic group. Secondly, the country of birth classification has been criticised for not covering all dimensions of ethnicity, such as culture and ethnic identity. We demonstrate in this paper how this criticism can be addressed by the use of additional indicators.

In conclusion, in the Dutch context, country of birth can be considered a useful indicator for ethnicity if complemented with additional indicators to, first, compensate for the drawbacks in certain conditions, and second, shed light on the mechanisms underlying the association between ethnicity and health.     

Factors associated with hypertension awareness, treatment, and control in Ghana, West Africa

Hypertension is rapidly becoming a major public health burden in sub-Saharan/Africa but awareness, treatment, and control is lagging behind. We analysed cross-sectional data from Ghana (West-Africa) to examine factors associated with awareness, treatment, and control of hypertension. The overall prevalence of hypertension was 29.4%. Of these, 34% were aware of their condition, 28% were receiving treatment, and 6.2% were controlled below SBP/DBP <140/90 mmHg. Multivariate analysis showed that old age was independently associated with higher hypertension awareness: 35-49-year-olds (odds ratio (OR) = 2.57, 95% (confidence interval) CI: 1.26-5.22), > or =50-year-olds (OR = 6.14, CI: 2.98-12.64) compared with 16-34-year-olds. Old age: > or =50-year-olds (OR: 6.25, 95% CI: 2.87-13.62), trading (OR = 2.46, 95% CI: 1.17-5.17), and overweight (OR = 1.85, 95% CI: 1.02, 3.34) were independently associated with pharmacological treatment of hypertension. Trading (OR = 2.51, 95% CI: 1.03-7.40) was independently associated with adequate blood pressure (BP) control but old age: > or =50-year-olds (OR = 0.11, 95% CI: 0.01-0.60) was independently associated with inadequate BP control. The identified factors provide important information for improving BP control among this population. Given the high cost of hypertension medication relative to income, increasing awareness and simple preventive measures such as promotion of physical activity, normalising body weight and reduction of salt intake, present the best hope for reducing the impact of hypertension on morbidity and mortality.     

The association of neighbourhood psychosocial stressors and self-rated health in Amsterdam, The Netherlands

OBJECTIVE: To investigate associations between neighbourhood-level psychosocial stressors (i.e. experience of crime, nuisance from neighbours, drug misuse, youngsters frequently hanging around, rubbish on the streets, feeling unsafe and dissatisfaction with the quality of green space) and self-rated health in Amsterdam, the Netherlands. PARTICIPANTS: A random sample of 2914 subjects aged > or = 18 years from 75 neighbourhoods in the city of Amsterdam, the Netherlands. DESIGN: Individual data from the Social State of Amsterdam Survey 2004 were linked to data on neighbourhood-level attributes from the Amsterdam Living and Security Survey 2003. Multilevel logistic regression was used to estimate odds ratios and neighbourhood-level variance. RESULTS: Fair to poor self-rated health was significantly associated with neighbourhood-level psychosocial stressors: nuisance from neighbours, drug misuse, youngsters frequently hanging around, rubbish on the streets, feeling unsafe and dissatisfaction with green space. In addition, when all the neighbourhood-level psychosocial stressors were combined, individuals from neighbourhoods with a high score of psychosocial stressors were more likely than those from neighbourhoods with a low score to report fair to poor health. These associations remained after adjustments for individual-level factors (i.e. age, sex, educational level, income and ethnicity). The neighbourhood-level variance showed significant differences in self-rated health between neighbourhoods independent of individual-level demographic and socioeconomic factors. CONCLUSION: Our findings show that neighbourhood-level psychosocial stressors are associated with self-rated health. Strategies that target these factors might prove a promising way to improve public health.     

Migrant mortality from diabetes mellitus across Europe: the importance of socio-economic change

The first objective of this study was to determine and quantify variations in diabetes mortality by migrant status in different European countries. The second objective was to investigate the hypothesis that diabetes mortality is higher in migrant groups for whom the country of residence (COR) is more affluent than the country of birth (COB). We obtained mortality data from 7 European countries. To assess migrant diabetes mortality, we used direct standardization and Poisson regression. First, migrant mortality was estimated for each country separately. Then, we merged the data from all mortality registers. Subsequently, to examine the second hypothesis, we introduced gross domestic product (GDP) per capita of COB in the models, as an indicator of socio-economic circumstances. The overall pattern shows higher diabetes mortality in migrant populations compared to local-born populations. Mortality rate ratios (MRRs) were highest in migrants originating from either the Caribbean or South Asia. MRRs for the migrant population as a whole were 1.9 (95% CI 1.8-2.0) and 2.2 (95% CI 2.1-2.3) for men and women respectively. We furthermore found a consistently inverse association between GDP of COB and diabetes mortality. Most migrant groups have higher diabetes mortality rates than the local-born populations. Mortality rates are particularly high in migrants from North Africa, the Caribbean, South Asia or low-GDP countries. The inverse association between GDP of COB and diabetes mortality suggests that socio-economic change may be one of the key aetiological factors.     

Multivariate autoregressive analysis of carotid artery blood flow waveform in an infant of a diabetic mother with cardiomyopathy

We analyzed the carotid artery blood flow waveform (CABFW) of an infant of a non-insulin dependent diabetic mother with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (IDM cardiomyopathy) through multivariate autoregressive analysis and compared the developmental change of his CABFW with that of normal newborns. The total power was lower than normal newborns on the second and third day of life when his heart dysfunction was severe, and elevated on the fifth day of life when normal-heart function was recovered. The power of component 3 (C3), of which the damping frequency was 7–11 Hz, was slightly high on the second and third day of life and it decreased to the normal range on the fifth day of life by component analysis. In contrast, the power of C3 increased with decreasing resistance index of anterior cerebral artery (RI of ACA) which shows the cerebral vascular resistance of normal newborns. These results suggest that the carotid artery blood flow volume decreased by low cardiac output and the cerebral vascular resistance decreased to maintain the cerebral circulation, when the heart dysfunction was severe.