Presentation and interpretation of food intake data: Factors affecting comparability across studies

Non-uniform, unclear, or incomplete presentation of food intake data limits interpretation, usefulness, and comparisons across studies. In this contribution, we discuss factors affecting uniform reporting of food intake across studies. The amount of food eaten can be reported as mean portion size, number of servings or total amount of food consumed per day; the absolute intake value for the specific study depends on the denominator used because food intake data can be presented as per capita intake or for consumers only. To identify the foods mostly consumed, foods are reported and ranked according to total number of times consumed, number of consumers, total intake, or nutrient contribution by individual foods or food groups. Presentation of food intake data primarily depends on a study's aim; reported data thus often are not comparable across studies. Food intake data further depend on the dietary assessment methodology used and foods in the database consulted; and are influenced by the inherent limitations of all dietary assessments. Intake data can be presented as either single foods or as clearly defined food groups. Mixed dishes, reported as such or in terms of ingredients and items added during food preparation remain challenging. Comparable presentation of food consumption data is not always possible; presenting sufficient information will assist valid interpretation and optimal use of the presented data. A checklist was developed to strengthen the reporting of food intake data in science communication.     

Mean ± Standard Deviation Intake Values for 1–<10-Year-Old South African Children for Application in the Assessment of the Inflammatory Potential of Their Diets Using the DII® Method: Developmental Research

This study aimed to develop a set of mean ± standard deviation (SD) intake values for South African (SA) children for 36 of the 45 food parameters included in the original Dietary Inflammatory Index (DII^®) tool. The SA food composition database contains 30 of the 45 food parameters included in the original DII^®, and a supplementary database was developed for six of the food parameters not included in the SA database. The SA child mean ± SD intake of macronutrients, micronutrients and select flavonoids was calculated by age in years, using eight data sets from dietary surveys conducted in SA in the last three decades. A total sample of 5412 children was included in the calculation of the mean ± SD. The current study sample was determined to be representative of 1–<10-year-old children in SA, and the plausibility of the mean intake values was confirmed by being in line with age-appropriate recommendations. Furthermore, an increase in energy, macronutrient, and most micronutrient intakes with increase in age was evident. The generated mean ± SD values for SA children can be used for calculation of the inflammatory potential of the dietary intake of SA children in the age range of 1–<10-year-old children.     

A Vaccine Based on the A/ASIA/G-VII Lineage of Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus Offers Low Levels of Protection against Circulating Viruses from the A/ASIA/Iran-05 lineage

The recent emergence and circulation of the A/ASIA/G-VII (A/G-VII) lineage of foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) in the Middle East has resulted in the development of homologous vaccines to ensure susceptible animals are sufficiently protected against clinical disease. However, a second serotype A lineage called A/ASIA/Iran-05 (A/IRN/05) continues to circulate in the region and it is therefore imperative to ensure vaccine strains used will protect against both lineages. In addition, for FMDV vaccine banks that usually hold a limited number of strains, it is necessary to include strains with a broad antigenic coverage. To assess the cross protective ability of an A/G-VII emergency vaccine (formulated at 43 (95% CI 8–230) PD₅₀/dose as determined during homologous challenge), we performed a heterologous potency test according to the European Pharmacopoeia design using a field isolate from the A/IRN/05 lineage as the challenge virus. The estimated heterologous potency in this study was 2.0 (95% CI 0.4–6.0) PD₅₀/dose, which is below the minimum potency recommended by the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE). Furthermore, the cross-reactive antibody titres against the heterologous challenge virus were poor (≤log₁₀ 0.9), even in those cattle that had received the full dose of vaccine. The geometric mean r₁-value was 0.2 (95% CI 0.03–0.8), similar to the potency ratio of 0.04 (95% CI 0.004–0.3). Vaccination decreased viraemia and virus excretion compared to the unvaccinated controls. Our results indicate that this A/G-VII vaccine does not provide sufficient protection against viruses belonging to the A/IRN/05 lineage and therefore the A/G-VII vaccine strain cannot replace the A/IRN/05 vaccine strain but could be considered an additional strain for use in vaccines and antigen banks.     

Review of the status and control of foot and mouth disease in sub-Saharan Africa

Six of the seven serotypes of foot and mouth disease (FMD) virus (i.e. all but Asia 1) are prevalent in Africa although there are marked regional differences in distribution. Three of these serotypes are unique to Africa, namely the three South African Territories (SAT) serotypes. Serotype C may also now be confined to Africa because it has not been reported elsewhere recently. In southern Africa at least, the SAT serotypes have an intimate and probably ancient association with African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) that is instrumental in their maintenance. Within each of the six prevalent serotypes, with the possible exception of C, there are a number of different lineages with more or less defined distributions (i.e. topotypes) that in some cases are sufficiently immunologically different from one another to require specific vaccines to ensure efficient control. This immunological diversity in prevalent serotypes and topotypes, in addition to uncontrolled animal movement in most parts of the continent, render FMD difficult to control in present circumstances. This fact, together with poorly developed intercontinental trade in animals and animal products has resulted in the control of FMD being afforded a low priority in most parts of the continent, although the northern and southern regions of the continent are an exception. As a consequence, eradication of FMD from Africa as a whole is not a prospect within the foreseeable future. In southern Africa, the use of fencing and other means to strictly control the movement of wildlife and livestock as well as judicious application of vaccine has resulted in countries of the region being able to access beef and other livestock markets in Europe and elsewhere in the developed world. Significant marketing of livestock and livestock products from Africa outside the continent is unlikely to be achieved unless similar approaches can be developed for other regions of Africa. This will result in continuing under-exploitation of a valuable resource in the arid and semi-arid regions of Africa, with increasing marginalisation of human populations living there.     

Hepatocyte function in a radial-flow bioreactor using a perfluorocarbon oxygen carrier

The aims of this study were, first, to indicate the metabolic activity of hepatocytes in a radial-flow polyurethane foam matrix bioreactor relative to monocultures, and second, to evaluate the effect on the hepatocytes of including a synthetic perfluorocarbon (PFC) oxygen carrier to the recirculating medium. The efficient O2-carrying ability of PFCs may be beneficial to bioreactors employed in stressed cellular environments. Thus, they may also be useful in the treatment of an acute liver failure patient with a bioartificial liver support system (BALSS). Data on the function of three-dimensional (3-D) hepatocyte cultures exposed to emulsified PFCs are lacking. RESULTS: the metabolic functions of the 3-D hepatocyte cultures were improved relative to monocultures. Three-dimensional cultures with and without PFC behaved similarly, and no adverse effects could be detected when PFC was included in the recirculating medium. The addition of PFC significantly improved lidocaine clearance possibly due to the presence of higher O2 tension in the medium. Imaging indicated that large aggregates formed and that seeding had followed flow through the matrix. Simulations indicated first, that the cell numbers used in this study had been insufficient to challenge the bioreactor O2 supply explaining the similarity in performance of the 3-D cultures, and second, that the benefit of adding PFC would be more pronounced at the cell densities likely to be used in a BALSS bioreactor.     

A first molecular epidemiological study of SAT-2 type foot-and-mouth disease viruses in West Africa

Thirty-one viruses causing SAT-2 outbreaks in seven West African countries between 1974 and 1991, and four viruses representative of East and Central Africa were genetically characterized in this study. Four major viral lineages (I-IV) were identified by phylogenetic analysis of an homologous 480 nucleotide region corresponding to the C-terminus end of VP1. Lineage I comprised two West African genotypes with viruses clustering according to year of isolation rather than geographical origin. Lineage II was represented by viruses isolated between 1979 and 1983 in two neighbouring West African countries, Senegal and The Gambia. Viruses from Nigeria and Eritrea, representative of West and East Africa respectively, constituted lineage III, whilst lineage IV, comprising viruses from Central and East Africa, was regionally and genetically distinct. This study revealed that unrestricted animal movement in West Africa is a major factor in disease dissemination and has also provided the first indication of trans-regional virus transmission.     

Effects of short-term copper exposure on gill structure, metallothionein and hypoxia-inducible factor-1alpha (HIF-1alpha) levels in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)

Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) were exposed to 1.65 microM of waterborne copper for 24 h. Fish were then transferred to metal-free water. Metallothionein mRNA induction in rainbow trout liver and gill tissue, hypoxia-inducible factor-1 (HIF-1alpha) accumulation in gill tissue and arithmetic mean thickness of gill epithelium (Har) were determined at 4 and 24h of exposure as well as 48 h after transfer to metal-free water. The arithmetic mean distance from water to blood was significantly elevated after both 4 and 24 h of exposure (Har was 4.67 and 4.66 microm, respectively in exposed fish, compared to 3.81 and 3.62 microm for the corresponding control fish). During the 48 h recovery Har returned towards the control values; the recovery value of 4.21 microm was significantly lower than values during exposures. There was also a significant increase in gill metallothionein mRNA levels after the 4 h exposure with MT/GAPDH ratio of 1.288 versus the control value of 0.988. In liver, metallothionein induction was not observed. HIF-1alpha protein showed an increased accumulation in gills after 4 h, with the HIF-1alpha/alpha-tubulin ratio of 0.562 being significantly higher than the 24 h exposure value of 0.232. These results suggest that exposure to copper for four hours causes hypoxia in the gill epithelium, which is adequate for the activation of HIF-1alpha.     

The feasibility of closed mitral valvotomy in pregnancy

Rheumatic mitral valve stenosis is an important nonobstetric complication of pregnancy in an African country. Between January 1965 and September 1985 41 closed mitral valvotomies with a Tubbs dilator were performed in 39 pregnant women (two first trimester, 22 second trimester, and 17 third trimester). All patients experienced symptomatic improvement from New York Heart Association Class 3.01 (average) preoperatively to 1.22 postoperatively. There were no deaths related to the operation and delivery. Fetal deaths were due to postoperative spontaneous abortion in two cases (4.9%) or premature labour in three cases (7.3%), for an overall survival of 36 babies (87.8%). Fetal morbidity was due to prematurity or dismaturity in three infants, all of whom survived. Thirty-three normal infants were delivered at term. Nine patients needed subsequent surgical procedures for mitral valve restenosis 5 to 17 years (mean 10.2 years) after the initial closed valvotomy: Repeat closed valvotomy was performed in three patients after 5, 8, and 10 years (the first two during subsequent pregnancies), an open procedure was performed in one after 6 years, and five patients underwent subsequent mitral valve replacement after 11 (two), 12 (two), and 17 (one) years. Two late deaths occurred; one after 10 years, as a result of pneumonia and meningitis, and the other after 12 years, before a mitral valve replacement for restenosis could be performed. None of the remaining patients has required further surgical procedures, but two have moderate symptoms. Closed mitral valvotomy gives satisfactory results in pregnant patients with severe mitral stenosis. When indicated during pregnancy, it should be performed at any stage of the pregnancy.     

Preparation and characterization of directly compactible layer-by-layer nanocoated cellulose

Iontophoresis is a promising technique for enhancing transdermal administration of charged drugs. However, conventional iontophoresis is not sufficient for effective delivery of large, hydrophilic, or electrically neutral molecules. In this study, we utilized charged liposomes as carriers, focused on a transfollicular route for delivery of the liposomes, and optimized iontophoretic conditions and lipid composition for this method in both in vitro and in vivo conditions. As a result, we identified the optimum condition (lipid composition: DOTAP/EPC/Chol=2:2:1, current supply: 0.45mA/cm(2), duration: 1h) for effective iontophoretic delivery of aqueous solution, which cannot be transferred into the skin without charged liposomes. We also examined the pharmacological effects of iontophoresis of liposomes encapsulating insulin (INS-lipo) using a rat model of type I diabetes. Interestingly, iontophoresis of INS-lipo onto a diabetes rat skin resulted in a gradual decrease in blood glucose levels, with levels reaching 20% of initial values at 18h after administration. These lower blood glucose levels were maintained for up to 24h. Significant amount of insulin were also detected in plasma 18h after iontophoresis of INS-lipo. We succeeded in developing a non-invasive and persistent transfollicular drug delivery system that used a combination of liposomes and iontophoresis.