The opportunity costs of caring for people with dementia in Southern Spain

Objective

The aim of this paper is to study the opportunity costs (OC) that are involved in being a caregiver and to compare them with the direct costs assumed by the State and the families. We evaluate direct cost (those that imply a payment-out-of-pocket) and indirect cost (those that imply a dedication in time). We hypothesized that costs increase with the severity of the dementia, with the educational level and active occupational situation of caregiver. They are greater if the caregiver is male, but if the patient and caregiver cohabit they are reduced.

Myelolipoma of the thoracic spine.

We describe a myelolipoma of the thoracic spine in a patient with gradual and progressive myelopathy. MR imaging showed this predominately fatty lesion to be extradural in location.     

Origin and characteristics of glycogen cells in the developing murine placenta.

The junctional zone (Jz) of the mouse placenta consists of two main trophoblast populations, spongiotrophoblasts and glycogen cells (GCs), but the development and function of both cell types are unknown. We conducted a quantitative analysis of GC size, number, and invasion of cells into the decidua across gestation. Furthermore, we identified markers of GC function to investigate their possible roles in the placenta. While the spongiotrophoblast cell volume doubles, and cell number increases steadily from E12.5 to E16.5, there is a remarkable 80-fold increase in GC numbers. This finding is followed by a notable decrease by E18.5. Surprisingly, the accumulation of GCs in the decidua did not fully account for the decrease in GC number in the Jz, suggesting loss of GCs from the placenta. Glucagons were detected on GCs, suggesting a steady glucose release throughout gestation. Connexin31 staining was shown to be specific for GCs. GC migration and invasion may be facilitated by temporally regulated expression of matrix metalloproteinase 9 and the imprinted gene product, Decorin. Expression of the clearance receptor for type II insulin-like growth factor (IGF-II), IGF2R, in a short developmental window before E16.5 may be associated with regulating the growth effects of IGF-II from glycogen cells and/or labyrinthine trophoblast on the expansion of the Jz. Thus stereology and immunohistochemistry have provided useful insights into Jz development and function of the glycogen cells.     

Rapid,simple identification of individual osteoblastic cells and their specific products by cell blotting assay

Biochemical and molecular biological studies of osteoblastic cell function and hormonal regulation are frequently confounded by the inherent cellular heterogeneity and phenotypic instability of existing in vitro and in vivo model systems. A new technique (derived from Western blotting or antibody-based detection of protein molecules bound to nitrocellulose paper) is described for identification of individual cells which synthesize osteoblast-specific gene products (bone Gla-protein, type I collagen, and alkaline phosphatase) or produce cAMP in response to parathyroid hormone (PTH) or isoproterenol. Dispersed primary neonatal rat calvariae or osteogenic sarcoma cells were “plated” on Immobilon-P (a hydrophobic transfer membrane with very high protein-binding capacity) for 30 minutes to several hours, followed by agonist treatment, formalin fixation, hematoxylin staining, and immunostaining with a battery of antibodies specific for osteoblastic products. Individual cells and their secretory zones were visualized by light microscopy and counted. Treatment with PTH with or without isoproterenol resulted in increases in the percentages of osteoblastic cells elaborating cAMP, as well as the intensity of immunostaining, but had no effects on MCF-7 cells, a nonosteoblastic breast carcinoma control line. The percentage of cells within each primary osteoblastic cell population isolated or rat osteogenic sarcoma cell clone (G2 or C12) that elaborated bone-specific proteins or that generated cAMP in response to PTH varied with time and the individual cellular preparation, reconfirming the cellular heterogeneity of these systems. This method, in conjunction with techniques such as in vitro hybridization, should prove useful in characterizing discrete osteoblastic bone cell subpopulations and in clarifying mechanisms of hormonal regulation by local and systemic agents.     

Comparative expression profiling in primary and immortalized endothelial cells: changes in gene expression in response to hydroxy methylglutaryl-coenzyme A reductase inhibition.

Immortalized cell lines offer significant logistical advantages over primary cells when used for in-vitro studies. Immortalized cells may, however, exhibit important differences relative to their primary cell counterparts. In this study, microarrays were used to make a genome-wide comparison between primary human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) and EA.hy926, an immortalized HUVEC cell line, in their baseline properties and in their response to inhibition of the mevalonate pathway with an inhibitor of hydroxy methylglutaryl-coenzyme A reductase (statin). HUVECs and EA.hy926 were incubated with control medium, atorvastatin, mevalonate, or a combination of atorvastatin and mevalonate for 24 h. Gene expression profiles were obtained in duplicates using Affymetrix Human Genome U133A 2.0 arrays (Santa Clara, California, USA). Probe-sets were selected according to the following criteria: a twofold or greater increase/decrease in atorvastatin-treated cells compared with untreated cells; a twofold or greater reversal of the effect of atorvastatin by combined treatment with atorvastatin and mevalonate; no significant change in gene expression in cells treated with mevalonate alone compared with untreated cells. Most genes that were expressed by untreated HUVECs, were also expressed by untreated EA.hy926 cells. EA.hy926 cells, however, constitutively expressed a large number of additional genes, many of which were related to cell cycle control and apoptosis. Atorvastatin induced differential expression (> or = twofold) of 103 genes in HUVECs (10 up, 93 down) and 466 genes in EA.hy926 cells (198 up, 268 down). Applying the above selection criteria, thrombomodulin and tissue plasminogen activator were up-regulated in both cell types, whereas, connective tissue growth factor, thrombospondin-1, and cysteine-rich angiogenic inducer 61 were down-regulated. In conclusion, EA.hy926 cells retain most of the characteristics of endothelial cells under baseline conditions as well as after treatment with atorvastatin. It is necessary, however, to carefully select and validate changes in genes that are the focus of studies when using EA.hy926 cells. While this cell line is highly useful in studies on some genes, including genes encoding molecules involved in regulating thrombohemorrhagic homeostasis, they appear to be less suited for studies focused on other genes, particularly those involved in the regulation of cell proliferation and apoptosis.