Aims: Alcohol advertising, in the form of product placement, has been shown to influence the viewer’s alcohol consumption. However, it is not just the portrayal itself that affects behavioural outcomes; the particular message that is conveyed in an alcohol portrayal may actually influence consumer behaviour in a manner known as “framing”. Therefore, the prevalence and framing of alcohol portrayals in movies was investigated by focussing on product placement strategies, several portrayal characteristics and compliance with relevant guidelines/laws. Furthermore, a comparison is made between movies sponsored by an alcohol brand and non-sponsored movies.
Methods: Sixteen Dutch movies (of which 50% were sponsored) underwent content analysis using a four-category, 21-item coding scheme. Alcohol was present in every movie and a total of 937 alcohol portrayals were analysed.
Findings: The results show that the alcohol portrayals were predominantly positive. In the sponsored movies, more liquor was consumed and alcohol portrayals had a lower plot connection.
Conclusions: In general, the differences between alcohol portrayals in movies sponsored by an alcohol brand compared with non-sponsored movies were rather small. However, the portrayals sometimes offend the legislation regarding regular alcohol commercials, and given the effects of alcohol portrayals on young viewers, this needs attention. 相似文献
In many countries, health insurers or health plans choose to contract either with any willing providers or with preferred providers. We compare these mechanisms when two medical services are imperfect substitutes in demand and are supplied by two different firms. In both cases, the reimbursement is higher when patients select the in‐network provider(s). We show that these mechanisms yield lower prices, lower providers' and insurer's profits, and lower expense than in the uniform‐reimbursement case. Whatever the degree of product differentiation, a not‐for‐profit insurer should prefer selective contracting and select a reimbursement such that the out‐of‐pocket expense is null. Although all providers join the network under any‐willing‐provider contracting in the absence of third‐party payment, an asymmetric equilibrium may exist when this billing arrangement is implemented. 相似文献
BackgroundTo inform national healthcare authorities whether quadrivalent influenza vaccines (QIVs) provide better value for money than trivalent influenza vaccines (TIVs), we assessed the cost-effectiveness of TIV and QIV in low-and-middle income communities based in South Africa and Vietnam and contrasted these findings with those from a high-income community in Australia.MethodsIndividual based dynamic simulation models were interfaced with a health economic analysis model to estimate the cost-effectiveness of vaccinating 15% of the population with QIV or TIV in each community over the period 2003–2013. Vaccination was prioritized for HIV-infected individuals, before elderly aged 65+ years and young children. Country or region-specific data on influenza-strain circulation, clinical outcomes and costs were obtained from published sources. The societal perspective was used and outcomes were expressed in International$ (I$) per quality-adjusted life-year (QALY) gained.ResultsWhen compared with TIV, we found that QIV would provide a greater reduction in influenza-related morbidity in communities in South Africa and Vietnam as compared with Australia. The incremental cost-effectiveness ratio of QIV versus TIV was estimated at I$4183/QALY in South Africa, I$1505/QALY in Vietnam and I$80,966/QALY in Australia.ConclusionsThe cost-effectiveness of QIV varied between communities due to differences in influenza epidemiology, comorbidities, and unit costs. Whether TIV or QIV is the most cost-effective alternative heavily depends on influenza B burden among subpopulations targeted for vaccination in addition to country-specific willingness-to-pay thresholds and budgetary impact. 相似文献
Fasciola hepatica is one of the most important helminthes parasites and triclabendazole (TCBZ) is routinely used for treatment of infected people and animals. Secreted protease enzymes by the F. hepatica plays a critical role in the invasion, migration, nutrition and the survival of parasite and are key targets for novel drugs and vaccines. The aim of study was to determine the protease activity of excretory- secretory products (ESP) of F. hepatica in the presence of TCBZ anthelmintic.
Methods
F. hepatica helminthes were collected and cultured within RPMI 1640 [TCBZ treated (test) and untreated (control)] for 6 h at 37 °C. ESP of treated and control were collected, centrifuged and supernatants were stored at -20°C. Protein concentrations were measured according to Bradford method. Protease enzymes activities of ESP samples were estimated by using sigma’s non-specific protease activity assay. ESP protein bands were detected by sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE).
Results
Mean protein concentrations in control and treated of ESP samples were determined 196.1 ±14.52 and 376.4 ±28.20 μg/ml, respectively. Mean protease enzymes activities in control and treated were 0.37 ±0.1 and 0.089 ±0.03 U/ml, respectively. Significant difference between proteins concentrations and protease enzymes activities of two groups was observed (P<0.05). SDS-PAGE showed different patterns of protein bands between treated and control samples.
Conclusion
The TCBZ reduced secreted protease enzymes activities and possibly effects on invasion, migration, nutrition and particularly survival of the parasite in the host tissues. 相似文献