Protection by Apomorphine in Two Independent Models of Acute Inhibition of Oxidative Metabolism in Rodents

Apomorphine was administered by continuous infusion in the mouse following acute inhibition of oxidative metabolism induced by systemic administration of MPTP, and in the gerbil following transient occlusion of the carotid arteries. The dosage employed was comparable to the one used in the treatment of severe on-off fluctuations in Parkinson's disease. The results show that apomorphine significantly diminishes the striatal lesion caused by MPTP and the size of the infarct associated with the transient global ischemia. These data suggest that apomorphine is neuroprotective, probably by means of an antioxidant effect, at doses that are clinically used. The finding may be relevant to brain ischemia as well to chronic neurodegeneration.     

Chronic supranigral infusion of BDNF in normal and MPTP-treated common marmosets

Summary. BDNF or vehicle were administered by unilateral supranigral infusion in normal and chronically lesioned MPTP-treated common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus) for four weeks and locomotor activity, disability and response to apomorphine were assessed with nigral TH, GFAP and GAD immunoreactivity and striatal [³H]mazindol autoradiography. Selective contraversive orientation and ipsilateral neglect evolved in MPTP-treated marmosets receiving BDNF with no significant difference in disability or locomotor activity when compared to the vehicle-infused group. Apomor-phine produced an ipsiversive rotational bias in BDNF-treated animals. In normal animals infused with BDNF contralateral neglect, ipsiversive turning, postural instability and ataxia rapidly evolved. In MPTP-treated marmosets BDNF caused increased ipsilateral striatal [³H]mazindol binding with increased somatic size and staining intensity in GAD-immunoreactive cells and a 10–20% loss of nigral TH-immunoreactive cells with increased GFAP staining. In normal common marmosets, both vehicle and BDNF infusion decreased nigral TH-immunoreactivity. Chronic supranigral infusion of BDNF alters motor behaviour and spatial attention in MPTP-treated marmosets which may reflect altered function in residual nigral dopaminergic neurons and brainstem GABAergic neurons and in normal animals produces behavioural and histological signs of nigrostriatal hypofunction. Received September 1, 1998; accepted December 17, 1998     

Melatonin protects against neurobehavioral and mitochondrial deficits in a chronic mouse model of Parkinson's disease

Neuronal oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction have been implicated in Parkinson's disease. Melatonin is a natural antioxidant and free radical scavenger that has been shown to effectively reduce cellular oxidative stress and protect mitochondrial functions in vitro. However, whether melatonin is capable of slowing down the neurodegenerative process in animal models of Parkinson's disease remains controversial. In this research, we examined long-term melatonin treatment on striatal mitochondrial and dopaminergic functions and on animal locomotor performance in a chronic mouse model of Parkinson's disease originally established in our laboratory by gradually treating C57BL/6 mice with 10 doses of 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (15 mg/kg, s.c.) and probenecid (250 mg/kg, i.p.) over five weeks. We report here that when the chronic Parkinsonian mice were pre-treated and continuously treated with melatonin (5 mg/kg/day, i.p.) for 18 weeks, the defects of mitochondrial respiration, ATP and antioxidant enzyme levels detected in the striatum of chronic Parkinson's mice were fully preempted. Meanwhile, the striatal dopaminergic and locomotor deficits seen in the chronic Parkinson's mice were partially and significantly forestalled. These results imply that long-term melatonin is not only mitochondrial protective but also moderately neuronal protective in the chronic Parkinson's mice. Melatonin may potentially be effective for slowing down the progression of idiopathic Parkinson's disease and for reducing oxidative stress and respiratory chain inhibition in other mitochondrial disorders.     

老龄帕金森病模型小鼠氧化应激相关基因的表达差异

目的：探讨老龄帕金森病( PD)模型小鼠行为学改变及黑质纹状体系统氧化应激相关基因的表达差异。方法10月龄快速老化P8系( SAMP8)小鼠16只,随机均分为对照组和模型组。模型组小鼠背部皮下注射1-甲基-4-苯基-1,2,3,6-四氢吡啶( MPTP)制成急性损伤模型,对照组小鼠给予同量生理盐水。给药后72 h进行行为学测试,高效液相色谱法检测黑质多巴胺( DA)含量,PCR Array检测其纹状体氧化应激相关基因的表达。结果与对照组相比,模型组小鼠DA水平下降,行为学成绩下降,差异有统计学意义( P<0．01);环氧化酶-2、可诱导型一氧化氮合酶2、还原型烟酰胺腺嘌呤二核苷酸磷酸( NADPH)氧化酶基因表达上调;而谷胱甘肽过氧化物酶3、6、8等9种基因明显下调(改变倍数>2)。结论老龄PD模型小鼠氧化应激相关的基因发生上调或下调,导致氧化应激反应的发生。     

白藜芦醇经NRF2/ARE通路减轻MPTP毒性研究

目的 观察白藜芦醇(resveratrol,trans-3,4′,5trihydroxystilbene,RE)对帕金森病(PD)斑马鱼多巴胺神经元的保护作用及其机制.方法 本研究分为5组:1)空白对照组(con组);2)200μM/L MPTP处理组(MPTP组);3)60μM/L RE处理组(RE组);4)先加60μM/L RE,12 h后加200μM/L MPTP组(MR1组);5)先加200μM/L MPTP,12 h后加60μM/L RE组(M1R组),每组含斑马鱼25条.每组斑马鱼发育至第4天时观察药物对多巴胺神经元、PD相关基因和NRF2/ARE信号通路的影响.解剖显微镜观察斑马鱼的运动功能、外部形态;激光共聚焦显微镜观察多巴胺神经元;荧光定量PCR检测PD相关基因parkin、pink1、dj-1以及抗氧化相关基因sod、cat的表达;Western blot检测Nrf2蛋白表达.结果 与con组相比,MPTP组斑马鱼出现尾巴后弯,多巴胺神经元减少,RE回救多巴胺神经元数量;MPTP组PD相关基因和氧化应激相关基因表达下调,Nrf2蛋白表达水平下降;MIR与MR1组PD相关基因、氧化应激相关基因及Nrf2蛋白的表达得到援救.结论 MPTP对斑马鱼多巴胺神经元具有毒性作用,RE可减弱MPTP的毒性,可通过抗氧化应激来实现.     

Sulfhydryl drugs reduce neurotoxicity of 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridime (MPTP) in the mouse

Summary Striatal levels of dopamine and its metabolites 3-methoxy-4-hydroxy-phenylacetic acid (DOPAC) and homovanillic acid (HVA) decreased 7 days after subcutaneous injection of MPTP (20 mg/kg) to the mouse. Striatal GSH contents decreased and GSSG/GSH ratios increased one hour after subcutaneous administration of MPTP. Pretreatments of both cysteamine (200 mg/kg, s.c.) and dimercaprol (20 mg/kg, i.m.) reduced the MPTP-induced decreases in striatal dopamine, DOPAC and HVA, and also prevented the MPTP-induced decreases in GSH levels and increases in GSSG/GSH ratios. On the other hand, injection of cysteamine did not modify the MPTP-induced decreases in striatal levels of dopamine and its metabolites when it was done 2 hours after MPTP administration. Moreover, pretreatment of cysteamine did not affect striatal concentrations of MPP⁺ in MPTP-treated mice. These results suggest that sulfhydryl drugs such as cysteamine and dimercaprol may reduce neurotoxity of MPTP probably via changes in redox cycle of glutathione in the brain.     

The expression of proenkephalin and prodynorphin genes and the induction of c-fos gene by dopaminergic drugs are not altered in the striatum of MPTP-treated mice

Summary The expression of proenkephalin (PENK), prodynorphin (PDYN) and c-fos genes was studied in the striatum of C57B1/6 mice treated with 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6,-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP), which are used as a rodent model of Parkinson's disease (PD). Two weeks after systemic administration of MPTP (2×40 mg/kg, s.c. 18h apart), the lesion of the substantia nigra (SN) could be visualised by loss of the nigral tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) mRNA hybridization signal and by a 91% decrease in striatal dopamine levels. The levels of PENK and PDYN mRNAs were not significantly changed in the striatum of the lesioned mice, as compared to non-treated controls. The induction of the immediate early gene c-fos by the dopamine D₂ receptor antagonist haloperidol was not altered, while the selective D₁ receptor agonist SKF 38393 failed to induce c-fos in the striatum of MPTP-treated mice.These results are in contrast to the data concerning rats with the 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) lesion of the SN, which serve as another rodent model of PD. In the striata of 6-OHDA-lesioned rats, PENK gene is upregulated, PDYN gene is down-regulated and the induction of c-fos gene by D₂ receptor antagonists is abolished, whereas selective D₁ receptor agonists induce c-fos gene, which does not occur in non-lesioned rats.We presume that the lack of influence of the MPTP lesion in mice on the striatal gene expression was mainly caused by insufficient dopamine depletion in the striatum, which could not be increased in this model. The importance of the changes observed in 6-OHDA-lesioned rats has been discussed in the context of the mouse and primate MPTP models of PD.     

1-Methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) disrupts social memory/recognition processes in the male mouse

Male mice treated with MPTP or vehicle were tested for their ability to demonstrate a memory-recognition response as evaluated in a habituation-dishabituation task. Treatment with MPTP severely disrupted the male's habituation-dishabituation response profile compared to vehicle treated animals. Administration ofl-DOPA at 45 min prior to behavioral testing un MPTP animals restored their performance on the habituation-dishabituation test to levels observed in vehicle treated animals. There was also a tendency forl-DOPA to produce enhanced responsiveness in vehicle treated animals. Mice treated with MPTP had significantly reduced concentrations of norepinephrine within the olfactory bulb and hippocampus. Vehicle treated mice administeredl-DOPA had significantly increased dopamine concentrations within the corpus striatum. These results suggest that, in addition to its putative effects upon the nigrostriatal dopaminergic system and motor behavior, MPTP is also exerting substantial effects upon other systems. In particular, the noradrenergic system and its potential involvement with memory/recognition processes in the CD-1 mouse appears to be very sensitive to the neurotoxic effects of MPTP.     

Differential recovery of sensorimotor function in GM1 ganglioside-treated vs. spontaneously recovered MPTP-treated cats: partial striatal dopaminergic reinnervation vs. neurochemical compensation

Administration of 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) to cats results in a parkinsonian syndrome characterized by rigidity, akinesia, bradykinesia, decreased response to external sensory stimuli and depletion of nigrostriatal dopamine. Cats spontaneously recover gross sensorimotor functions despite little recovery of the dopaminergic innervation of the striatum. In contrast, GM1 ganglioside administration accelerates gross behavioral recovery and causes an increased dopaminergic innervation of the striatum. This study examined whether these two recovery conditions are characterized by different degrees of functional recovery. Cats were trained to perform a sensorimotor reaching task prior to MPTP exposure and were then re-tested on the task 6 weeks later after spontaneously recovering gross motor functioning or after 6 weeks of GM1 treatment. Gross motor recovery was similar in both groups. However, the spontaneously recovered cats had significant difficulty in performing the task while GM1-treated cats performed normally. GM1-treated cats also had significant increases in striatal [ ]mazindol binding compared to spontaneously recovered cats. These results suggest that while gross motor functions may improve to a similar extent with spontaneous and GM1-induced recovery from experimental parkinsonism, complex sensorimotor behavior recovers to different extents under the different recovery conditions. More complete behavioral recovery may depend upon at least a partial recovery of striatal dopaminergic terminals rather than neurochemical compensation.     

Effects of nicotine on hydroxyl free radical formation in vitro and on MPTP-induced neurotoxicity in vivo

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is one of the most frequent disorders of the basal ganglia. From epidemiological studies there is a controversial discussion on the question whether tobacco smoking is correlated with a decreased incidence of PD. The present study aimed to elucidate the role of nicotine and its potential neuroprotective effects in a rodent model of PD. These effects may be related to an altered hydroxyl radical formation; this possibility was studied in vitro. Nicotine and α-phenyl-N-tert-butyl nitrone (PBN) were examined in a cell-free in vitro Fenton system (Fe³⁺/EDTA + H₂O₂) for their radical scavenging properties using the salicylate trapping method. Salicylic acid (0.5 mM) was incubated in the presence and absence of nicotine or PBN and the main products of the reaction of hydroxyl radicals with salicylic acid, namely 2,3- and 2,5-dihydroxybenzoic acid, were immediately determined using HPLC in combination with electrochemical detection. Nicotine and PBN were both able to significantly reduce hydroxyl radical levels at concentrations of 1, 2.5 and 5 mM. Interestingly, at 5 mM nicotine was able to reduce hydroxyl radical levels significantly more than the radical scavenger PBN (5 mM). To investigate the in vivo effects of nicotine, male C57BL/6 mice were used in the MPTP mouse model of PD. Nicotine (0.1 or 0.4 mg/kg s.c.) was administered twice daily for a period of 14 days. On day 8 a single injection of 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP, 30 mg/kg s.c.) was given as well as an enhanced protocol of nicotine treatment (0.1 or 0.4 mg/kg s.c., 30 min before MPTP and 30, 90, 210, 330, 450, 570 min after MPTP) for a total of seven injections of nicotine. High dosage nicotine treatment significantly increased the MPTP-induced loss of body weight and resulted in a significantly decreased striatal dopamine content and an increased dopamine turnover in comparison with the MPTP-treated controls at day 15. However, the lower dosage of nicotine did not significantly alleviate the MPTP-induced effects, although some parameters showed a slight tendency in this direction. These results demonstrate that in vitro nicotine has radical scavenging properties which might suggest neuroprotective effects. In vivo experiments with nicotine, however, showed that a low dosage of nicotine did not alleviate the MPTP-induced dopamine depletion, but a large dosage even enhanced it. Received: 20 March 1998 / Accepted: 23 June 1998