An Organotypic Spinal Cord - Dorsal Root Ganglion - Skeletal Muscle Coculture of Embryonic Rat. II. Functional Evidence for the Formation of Spinal Reflex Arcs In Vitro

Electrical properties of motoneurons, muscle fibres and dorsal root ganglion (DRG) cells were studied in an organotypic coculture of embryonic rat spinal cord, dorsal root ganglia and skeletal muscle. The motoneurons were identified by their morphology and position in culture. Their size and input conductance were significantly larger than those of spinal interneurons. Intracellular current injection evoked action potentials in all motoneurons, but only evoked stable repetitive firing patterns in some. Excitability was correlated to somatic size and the rate of spontaneous excitatory input. It is suggested that the somatic growth and the increase in excitability is regulated by the excitatory afferents. The motoneurons showed spontaneous excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials and action potentials which disappeared with the application of various agents known to inhibit excitability or excitatory synaptic transmission. Excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs and IPSPs respectively) were distinguished by their shape, reversal potential and pharmacology. IPSPs could be depolarizing or hyperpolarizing in different cells. A higher percentage of cells with hyperpolarizing IPSPs was found in older cultures and in the presence of skeletal muscle, suggesting a reversal of the polarity of IPSPs with development. The spontaneous muscle contractions observed in the cultures could be due either to innervation, spontaneous oscillations of the membrane potential, or electrical coupling between neighbouring fibres. A small percentage of DRG cells showed spontaneous action potentials, all of which were found in cultures with spontaneous muscle contractions. The electrical stimulation of DRG afferents evoked mono- and polysynaptic EPSPs in motoneurons, endplate potentials and muscle contractions. The stimulation of the ventral horns evoked endplate potentials and muscle contractions via mono- or polysynaptic pathways. Together these results indicate that appropriate and functional contacts were established in the culture between myotubes and DRG cells, between DRG cells and motoneurons, and between motoneurons and muscle fibres.     

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor requirement for activity-dependent maturation of glutamatergic synapse in developing mouse somatosensory cortex

The maturation of cortical circuitry critically depends on experience. Recently, a model of silent synapse has been proposed as a mechanism of activity-mediated transition of immature synapse to mature synapse. It is not clear, however, how activity could regulate this transition. Here, we show the evidence that endogenous brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is required for the maturation of glutamatergic synapse in developing mouse somatosensory cortex. Field potential recordings of thalamocortical glutamatergic synaptic activity with brain slices from the BDNF mutant mice showed that AMPA receptor responses are low, but NMDA receptor responses remain high in layer 4, thus, the relative contribution of AMPA receptor response is significantly lower compared to the age-matched wild-type mouse. Furthermore, optical images of development of thalamocortical connectivity with a voltage-sensitive dye showed that NMDA receptor-dominant synapse is established first in layer 4 and layer 5/6 then AMPA receptor response appears later in concomitant with reduction of NMDA receptor response in layer 4 and that the maturation of the silent synapse is impaired in the BDNF mutant mice. In layer 5/6, NMDA receptor response was suppressed without upregulation of AMPA receptor response. This process also required BDNF function. Interestingly, whisker-trimming of the wild-type mouse from just after birth showed quite similar results with the homozygous mutant of their whiskers left intact. Therefore, we would propose that BDNF is a critical mediator for the maturation of glutamatergic synapse in developing mouse somatosensory cortex.     

Bone morphogenetic protein-7 enhances dendritic growth and receptivity to innervation in cultured hippocampal neurons

Members of the bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) family of growth factors are present in the central nervous system during development and throughout life. They are known to play an important regulatory role in cell differentiation, but their function in postmitotic telencephalic neurons has not been investigated. To address this question, we examined cultured hippocampal neurons following treatment with bone morphogenetic protein-7 (BMP-7, also referred to as osteogenic protein-1). When added at the time of plating, BMP-7 markedly stimulated the rate of dendritic development. Within 1 day, the dendritic length of BMP-7-treated neurons was more than twice that of controls. By three days the dendritic arbors of BMP-7-treated neurons had attained a level of branching similar to that of 2-week-old neurons cultured under standard conditions. Several findings indicate that BMP-7 selectively enhances dendritic development. While dendritic length was significantly increased in BMP-7-treated neurons, the length of the axon was not. In addition, the mRNA encoding the dendritic protein MAP2 was significantly increased by BMP-7 treatment, but the mRNA for tubulin was not. Finally, BMP-7 did not enhance cell survival. Because dendritic maturation is a rate-limiting step in synapse formation in hippocampal cultures, we examined whether BMP-7 accelerated the rate at which neurons became receptive to innervation. Using two separate experimental paradigms, we found that the rate of synapse formation (assessed by counting synapsin I-positive presynaptic vesicle clusters) was increased significantly in neurons that had been exposed previously to BMP-7. Because BMP-7 and related BMPs are expressed in the hippocampus in situ, these factors may play a role in regulating dendritic branching and synapse formation in both development and plasticity.     

Multiple Invagination Patterns and Synaptic Efficacy in Primate and Mouse Rod Synaptic Terminals

PurposeOptical retina images are scaled based on eye size, which results in a linear scale ratio of 10:1 for human versus mouse and 7:1 for macaque monkey versus mouse. We examined how this scale difference correlates with the structural configuration of synaptic wiring in the rod spherule (RS) between macaque and mouse retinas compared with human data.MethodsRod bipolar cell (BC) dendrites and horizontal cell (HC) axonal processes, which invaginate the RS to form synaptic ribbon-associated triads, were examined by serial section transmission electron microscopy.ResultsThe number of rod BC invaginating dendrites ranged 1∼4 in the macaque RS but only 1∼2 in the mouse. Approximately 40% of those dendrites bifurcated into two central elements in the macaque, but 3% of those dendrites did in the mouse. Both factors gave rise to 10 invagination patterns of BC and HC neurites in the macaque RS but only two in the mouse. Five morphological parameters: the lengths of arciform densities and ribbons, the area of the BC–RS contact, and the surface areas of BC and HC invaginating neurites, were all independent of the invagination patterns in the macaque RS. However, those parameters were significantly greater in the macaque than in the mouse by ratios of 1.5∼1.8.ConclusionsThe primate RS provides a more expansive BC–RS interface associated with the longer arciform density and more branched invaginating neurites of BCs and HCs than the mouse RS. The resulting greater synaptic contact area may contribute to more efficient signal transfer.     

胎儿端脑突触素表达和突触发育的研究

为了探讨突触素(SYN)在不同周龄阶段胎儿端脑额叶中的表达与胎儿额叶皮质突触发育的关系,本研究采用免疫组织化学方法观察突触素在不同周龄阶段胎儿额叶的表达水平,利用计算机图像分析技术测量不同周龄阶段胎儿额叶突触素表达的平均光密度;同时取材、常规电镜技术处理、透射电镜观察额叶突触发育的超微结构变化。结果显示:(1)光镜下各组均可见SYN免疫阳性产物主要表达于胎儿的额叶皮层,其表达量随周龄的增加而增强,各组间呈现显著性差异(P<0.05),其中16～24周胎儿额叶的阳性产物位于神经元的胞浆内,呈均匀的浅黄色,神经元突起内未见阳性产物;25～29周额叶的阳性产物呈黄色,在胞浆和突起内均可见,但阳性产物的量却下降;而30～39周额叶的SYN阳性产物呈棕黄色的点状或颗粒状,主要位于神经元的突起内,神经元胞浆内未见阳性产物,阳性产物的量显著增加;(2)透射电镜下19～36周胎儿大脑额叶均可见到突触样结构,随着周龄的增加,突触的数量逐渐增多,结构逐渐清晰和完整。上述结果提示SYN的表达可以反映胎儿神经系统发育的程度,SYN的表达与突触的发育是一致的;SYN在胎儿大脑额叶的表达部位经历由神经元胞浆内表达为主到神经元终末表达为主的这一过程,可能是由于SYN先是在神经元胞浆内合成,再随着神经元的发育而逐步转移到神经元突起的末梢部位。     

奥氮平连续处理后大鼠中缝背核组织差异表达蛋白的生物信息学分析

目的 分析奥氮平连续处理的大鼠中缝背核蛋白的差异表达,探究奥氮平使用早期导致代谢障碍可能的中枢5-HT机制。方法 将40只SD大鼠随机分配到奥氮平组[灌胃奥氮平1.2 mg/(kg·d）]和对照组（灌胃等量0.9%氯化钠溶液）,两组各分配10只雌性大鼠、10只雄性大鼠。给药1次/d,连续28 d。最后一次给药1 h后处理大鼠,并取大脑中缝背核样本。利用绝对和相对定量同位素标记技术联合液相色谱-串联质谱技术对大鼠中缝背核组织进行蛋白质组学分析,进一步对差异表达蛋白进行GO、KEGG通路、COG、蛋白互作网络分析。另将24只大鼠随机分为4组：2个奥氮平组和2个对照组（6只/组）,类似方法得到大鼠中缝背核样本,根据蛋白质组学数据选择目标基因的表达进行qRT-PCR和Western blot验证。结果 筛选出奥氮平组与对照组大鼠中缝背核差异表达蛋白有72种上调、142种下调。GO注释分析显示,涉及奥氮平的差异表达蛋白参与细胞过程、生物调节、代谢过程、应激反应、多细胞生物过程以及结合、催化活性、分子功能调节、转录调节活性等分子功能。KEGG富集分析显示,涉及奥氮平的差异表达蛋白主要参与流体剪切应...     

APP17肽对缺氧缺血性脑病新生鼠皮质区GAP-43表达的影响

目的：观察APP（β—amyloid precursop protein,APP）17肽（APP695—319—335）肽段对缺氧缺血性脑病新生鼠皮质区GAP-43表达的影响。方法：将生后7d的新生大鼠随机分为假手术组、脑病组和APP17肽治疗组。采用一侧颈动脉结扎,然后放在缺氧仓内2h的方法制备缺氧缺血性脑病模型。应用免疫组化方法观察各组大鼠不同时期脑皮质GAP-43表达的变化。结果：免疫组化结果显示,脑病组较假手术组小鼠皮质区GAP-43免疫阳性细胞增加（P〈0．01）．治疗组较脑病组GAP-43免疫阳性细胞明显增多（P〈0．01）。结论：缺氧缺血性脑损伤后,皮质区GAP-43表达和合成增加,GAP-43的表达增加可能与神经元再生和轴突重塑有关,是脑缺氧缺血后神经细胞内源性代偿机制之一。APP17肽可能通过调节GAP-43的表达来增加神经细胞之间的突触联系,促进神经的生长起到营养神经的作用,从而改善缺氧缺血性脑病小鼠的预后。     

地黄饮子改善AD小鼠星形胶质细胞损伤调节突触结构功能的作用机制

目的：探讨地黄饮子改善AD小鼠脑中星形胶质细胞损伤及保护突触结构功能的作用机制。方法：40只4月龄雄性APP/PS1转基因小鼠随机分为模型组、模型+地黄饮子(2.5 g·kg^-1)组,每组20只;40只同背景、同月龄C57BL/6J小鼠,随机分为正常组、正常+地黄饮子(2.5 g·kg^-1)组,每组20只。正常+地黄饮子组和模型+地黄饮子组给予地黄饮子灌胃,正常组和模型组均给予等量无菌生理盐水,每天灌胃1次,连续给药150 d。采用小鼠避暗箱实验和Y迷宫自由交替实验测试小鼠学习记忆能力。采用液质联用质谱仪(LC-MS)测定样品中谷氨酸(Glu)和谷氨酰胺(Gln)含量;长时程增强(LTP)实验检测脑组织的突触可塑性;蛋白免疫印迹法(Western blot)检测小鼠脑组织兴奋性氨基酸转运蛋白2(EAAT2),突触后致密物-95(PSD95)及突触素(SYN)的表达水平;免疫荧光法评估EAAT2的定位及表达;比色法检测小鼠脑组织Na⁺-K⁺ATP酶活性。结果：与正常组比较,模型组小鼠在避暗箱实验中停留...     

替米沙坦对糖尿病大鼠认知功能的保护作用

目的 观察血管紧张素Ⅱ受体拮抗剂替米沙坦对糖尿病大鼠认知功能的保护作用.方法 将40只大鼠随机分为正常对照组、糖尿病组、糖尿病 替米沙坦组.建立链脲佐菌素(streptozotocin,STZ)糖尿病大鼠模型,替米沙坦干预12周,Morris水迷宫测试其学习记忆能力,透射电镜观察海马CA1区突触超微结构.结果 替米沙坦组与糖尿病组比较,Morris水迷宫测试中潜伏期明显缩短(P＜0.05),中心区停留时间百分比和通过原平台位置次数增加(P＜0.05),电镜下海马突触结构明显改善.结论 替米沙坦对糖尿病大鼠认知功能有保护作用.     

Central nervous system diseases related to pathological microglial phagocytosis

Microglia are important phagocytes of the central nervous system (CNS). They play an important role in protecting the CNS by clearing necrotic tissue and apoptotic cells in many CNS diseases. However, recent studies have found that microglia can phagocytose parts of neurons excessively, such as the neuronal cell body, synapse, or myelin sheaths, before or after the onset of CNS diseases, leading to aggravated injury and impaired tissue repair. Meanwhile, reduced phagocytosis of synapses and myelin results in abnormal circuit connections and inhibition of remyelination, respectively. Previous studies focused primarily on the positive effects of microglia phagocytosis, whereas only a few studies have focused on the negative effects. In this review, we use the term "pathological microglial phagocytosis" to refer to excessive or reduced phagocytosis by microglia that leads to structural or functional abnormalities in target cells and brain tissue. The classification of pathological microglial phagocytosis, the composition, and activation of related signaling pathways, as well as the process of pathological phagocytosis in various kinds of CNS diseases, are described in this review. We hypothesize that pathological microglial phagocytosis leads to aggravation of tissue damage and negative functional outcome. For example, excessive microglial phagocytosis of synapses can be observed in Alzheimer's disease and schizophrenia, leading to significant synapse loss and memory impairment. In Parkinson's disease, ischemic stroke, and traumatic brain injury, excessive microglial phagocytosis of neuronal cell bodies causes impaired gray matter recovery and sensory dysfunction. We therefore believe that more studies should focus on the mechanism of pathological microglial phagocytosis and activation to uncover potential targets of therapeutic intervention.