Functional map of arrestin-1 at single amino acid resolution

Arrestins function as adapter proteins that mediate G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) desensitization, internalization, and additional rounds of signaling. Here we have compared binding of the GPCR rhodopsin to 403 mutants of arrestin-1 covering its complete sequence. This comprehensive and unbiased mutagenesis approach provides a functional dimension to the crystal structures of inactive, preactivated p44 and phosphopeptide-bound arrestins and will guide our understanding of arrestin–GPCR complexes. The presented functional map quantitatively connects critical interactions in the polar core and along the C tail of arrestin. A series of amino acids (Phe375, Phe377, Phe380, and Arg382) anchor the C tail in a position that blocks binding of the receptor. Interaction of phosphates in the rhodopsin C terminus with Arg29 controls a C-tail exchange mechanism in which the C tail of arrestin is released and exposes several charged amino acids (Lys14, Lys15, Arg18, Lys20, Lys110, and Lys300) for binding of the phosphorylated receptor C terminus. In addition to this arrestin phosphosensor, our data reveal several patches of amino acids in the finger (Gln69 and Asp73–Met75) and the lariat loops (L249–S252 and Y254) that can act as direct binding interfaces. A stretch of amino acids at the edge of the C domain (Trp194–Ser199, Gly337–Gly340, Thr343, and Thr345) could act as membrane anchor, binding interface for a second rhodopsin, or rearrange closer to the central loops upon complex formation. We discuss these interfaces in the context of experimentally guided docking between the crystal structures of arrestin and light-activated rhodopsin.The human genome encodes more than 800 G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), which mediate signaling between cells and provide an important link to our environment as the principal receptors for taste, smell, and vision. The visual system with its photoreceptor rhodopsin is an excellent system to understand GPCR signaling, as detailed information exists on the structures and dynamic interactions of the protein constituents (1). G protein-mediated signaling by light-activated rhodopsin is terminated by a process that begins with the phosphorylation of rhodopsin’s C terminus by the rhodopsin kinase GRK1. The phosphorylated, light-activated rhodopsin binds then to arrestin-1, which stops signaling by occluding the G protein-binding site. Further cloning efforts yielded two ubiquitously expressed nonvisual arrestins (arrestin-2 and arrestin-3 or β-arrestin-1 and β-arrestin-2) and the cone-specific arrestin-4. It seems clear today that most GPCRs share a common mechanism of signal termination involving receptor phosphorylation and the binding of arrestins. Arrestin-bound receptors may be internalized and degraded, internalized and recycled, and/or initiate G protein-independent signaling (2).In recent years there has been tremendous progress in the structure determination of active GPCR states including those of light-activated rhodopsin (3–5) and the first GPCR-G protein complex (6). Detailed structural information on the inactive state of arrestin-1 has been available for some time (7, 8). These inactive structures have recently been complemented with structures of a preactivated state of the arrestin-1 splice variant p44 (9) and of arrestin-2 bound to a receptor phosphopeptide (10). Analysis of these 3D structures provides many clues of how arrestins function. However, structures alone do not tell the whole story, as they contain little information about which subset of residues stabilize a particular conformation or contribute to receptor binding. The approximate binding surface was established by peptide (11) and antibody (12) competition experiments. Series of targeted mutagenesis studies based on the cell-free expression of radiolabeled arrestin (13) were used to probe the function of specific arrestin regions. However, these targeted studies are difficult to compare quantitatively as they have been gathered in over 20 y of work. Here we present an unbiased and complete scan of the arrestin-1 sequence to compare the relative impact of each amino acid on binding to light-activated, phosphorylated rhodopsin. These data provide a functional dimension to the available crystal structures and will guide our molecular understanding of GPCR–arrestin interactions.     

Comparative analysis of CreER transgenic mice for the study of brain macrophages: A case study

Conditional mutagenesis and fate mapping have contributed considerably to our understanding of physiology and pathology. Specifically, Cre recombinase-based approaches allow the definition of cell type-specific contributions to disease development and of inter-cellular communication circuits in respective animal models. Here we compared Cx₃cr1^CreER and Sall1^CreER transgenic mice and their use to decipher the brain macrophage compartment as a showcase to discuss recent technological advances. Specifically, we highlight the need to define the accuracy of Cre recombinase expression, as well as strengths and pitfalls of these particular systems that should be taken into consideration when applying these models.     

变应原突变体在支气管哮喘免疫治疗中的应用

特异性免疫治疗（SIT）是对明确了变应原的变态反应性疾病的一种有效的治疗方法。重组变应原及其衍生物的技术的进步大大提高了生产用于治疗变应性疾病的新型疫苗的能力。本文将就用定点突变技术获取的重组变应原突变体在支气管哮喘免疫治疗中的应用做一综述。     

Computational Analysis of Mutations in the Receptor-Binding Domain of SARS-CoV-2 Spike and Their Effects on Antibody Binding

Currently, SARS-CoV-2 causing coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is responsible for one of the most deleterious pandemics of our time. The interaction between the ACE2 receptors at the surface of human cells and the viral Spike (S) protein triggers the infection, making the receptor-binding domain (RBD) of the SARS-CoV-2 S-protein a focal target for the neutralizing antibodies (Abs). Despite the recent progress in the development and deployment of vaccines, the emergence of novel variants of SARS-CoV-2 insensitive to Abs produced in response to the vaccine administration and/or monoclonal ones represent a potential danger. Here, we analyzed the diversity of neutralizing Ab epitopes and assessed the possible effects of single and multiple mutations in the RBD of SARS-CoV-2 S-protein on its binding affinity to various antibodies and the human ACE2 receptor using bioinformatics approaches. The RBD-Ab complexes with experimentally resolved structures were grouped into four clusters with distinct features at sequence and structure level. The performed computational analysis indicates that while single amino acid replacements in RBD may only cause partial impairment of the Abs binding, moreover, limited to specific epitopes, the variants of SARS-CoV-2 with multiple mutations, including some which were already detected in the population, may potentially result in a much broader antigenic escape. Further analysis of the existing RBD variants pointed to the trade-off between ACE2 binding and antigenic escape as a key limiting factor for the emergence of novel SAR-CoV-2 strains, as the naturally occurring mutations in RBD tend to reduce its binding affinity to Abs but not to ACE2. The results provide guidelines for further experimental studies aiming to identify high-risk RBD mutations that allow for an antigenic escape.     

登革2型病毒全长cDNA克隆定点诱变的OL-PCR方法

目的 对带有登革2型病毒（DEN-2）全长cDNA的质粒pDVWS501上E62、E203位点进行定点诱变。方法 设计4对点诱变引物,运用OL-PCR（overlapPCR)法,扩增出分别在E62或E203位带有点突变的2条DNA片段,克隆至T载体,获T-TB62、T-TB203两个克隆,将T-TB62用ClaⅠ和SphⅠ分别酶切,T-TB203用SphⅠ NheⅠ酶切后,用T4连接酶分别连接至pDVWS501,获重组质粒TB62和TB203。对TB62和TB203进行序列测定。结果 成功得到分别在E62、E203位带有点突变的TB62、TB203克隆。结论 OL-PCR法是具有较高突变效率的定点诱变方法。     

Substitutions at the Glu62 residue of human interleukin-2 differentially affect its binding to the α chain and the βγ complex of the interleukin-2 receptor

Human interleukin-2 (IL-2) α helix B is more conserved than the whole molecule, but has been less studied than other α helices of IL-2. Using site-directed mutagenesis, several IL-2 mutants in this helix were obtained. We found that the IL-2 mutant containing Leu at position 62 (Leu⁶²-IL-2) loses its ability to bind IL-2 receptor subunit α (IL-2Rα), but retains binding affinity to IL-2R subunit βγ as well as some bioactivity; nevertheless, another substitution at the same residue, Arg⁶² IL-2, loses its binding ability to both IL-2Rα and IL-2Rβγ, and can no longer stimulate IL-2-dependent cell growth, showing that Glu⁶² not only takes part in IL-2Rα binding, but can also affect IL-2 binding to IL-2Rβγ. In this regard, Glu⁶² may be a key site in the IL-2/IL-2Rα interaction, and can facilitate IL-2R ternary-complex formation, leading to IL-2Rα-mediated, IL-2-stimulated signal transduction.     

Critical Amino Acid Residues for Nicotine 5＇ -Hydroxylation in Human CYP2A Enzymes

Objective： We have continued previous work in which we demonstrated that #117 and #372 amino acids contributed to the high activities of human CYP2A13 in catalyzing 4-methylnitrosamino-1-（3-pyridyl）-1-butanone（NNK） and aflatoxin BI（AFB1） carcinogenic activation. The present study was designed to identify other potential amino acid residues that contribute to the different catalytic characteristics of two CYP2A enzymes, CYP2A6 and CYP2A13, in nicotine metabolism and provide insights of the substrate and related amino acid residues interactions. Methods： A series of reciprocally substituted mutants of CYP2A6lle^300→ Phe, CYP2A6Gly^301aAla, CYP2A6Ser^369 → Gly, CYP2A13Phe^300→ Ile, CYP2A13Ala^301 → Gly and CYP2A13Gly^369 → Set were generated by site-directed mutagenesis/baculovirus-Sf9 insect cells expression. Comparative kinetic analysis of nicotine 5＇hydroxylatin by wild type and mutant CYP2A proteins was performed. Results：All amino acid residue substitutions at 300, 301 and 369 caused significant kinetic property changes in nicotine metabolism. While CYP2A6Ile^300→ Phe and CYP2A6Gly^301→Ala mutations had notable catalytic efficiency increases compared to that for the wild type CYP2A6, CYP2A13Phe^300→Ile and CYP2A13Ala^301→Gly replacement introduced remarkable catalytic efficiency decreases. In addition, all these catalytic efficiency alterations were caused by Vmax variations rather than Km changes. Substitution of #369 residue significantly affected both Km and Vmax values. CYP2A6Ser^369 → Gly increase the catalytic efficiency via a significant Km decrease versus Vmax enhancement, while the opposite effects were seen with CYP2A13Gly^369 → Ser. Conclusion：#300, #301 and #369 residues in human CYP2A6/13 play important roles in nicotine 5＇ -oxidation. Switching #300 or #301 residues did not affect the CYP2A protein affinities toward nicotine, although these amino acids are located in the active center. Set369 to Gly substitution indirectly affected nicotine binding by     

大蒜对香烟诱发蚕豆根尖细胞微核的抑制作用

目的　探讨大蒜对香烟诱发蚕豆根尖细胞微核的抑制作用。方法　利用蚕豆根尖微核技术 ,对不同浓度香烟烟雾水溶物诱发蚕豆根尖微核进行了研究 ,并进一步研究了大蒜对诱变剂的抗诱变作用。结果　香烟烟雾水溶物 (0 .5～ 4支 10 0ml)能显著诱发蚕豆根尖微核的形成 (P <0 .0 1) ,并呈明显的剂量效应 ;香烟烟雾水溶物加入大蒜蒜汁处理蚕豆根尖 ,微核率显著降低 ,与阳性组比较有显著差异 (P <0 .0 1)。结论　大蒜蒜汁具有良好的抗香烟诱变能力。     

天花粉蛋白突变体的构建及其在原核系统中的表达

目的：构建天花粉蛋白（TCS）突变体,并将其在原核系统内进行表达及纯化。方法：借助计算机预测TCS可能的抗原决定簇（YFF81-83）并设计出适当的突变引物。以栝楼基因组DNA为模板,利用重组PCR技术扩增TCS突变体全长基因,经BamHⅠ和EcoRⅠ双酶切后与原核表达载体pRSET-A连接,转化感受态E.coli DH5α,提取质粒进行酶切鉴定及测序。将所获阳性重组质粒转化感受态E.coli BL21（DE3）,经IPTG诱导表达后,对表达产物进行Western blot鉴定。最后用Ni-NTA亲和层析柱对所获突变体蛋白进行纯化。结果：成功构建了TCS突变体（TCSYFF81-83ACS）,并获得了突变体蛋白在大肠杆菌内的可溶性高效表达,经Ni-NTA亲和层析柱纯化后,产生出大量均一的TCS突变体蛋白。结论：TCS的定点突变及其在原核系统内的表达,为基因工程方法改造TCS提供了新的途径。