Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus: An Update

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a serious threat to patients in health care facilities and the community. A MRSA infection can be much more severe than other bacterial infections and can be life-threatening. Resistance to common antibiotics makes treating MRSA costly and difficult. Prolonged hospitalization requiring specialized IV antibiotics also has cost implications. Treatment of MRSA can include use of antibiotics; topical therapies such as honey, topical silver, and gentian violet; and bacteriophages. Research is being conducted on new antibiotics and a MRSA vaccine.     

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in food products: cause for concern or case for complacency?

The widespread use of antimicrobial agents, in combination with insufficient infection control measures, is the main driver of the current pandemic of antimicrobial resistance in human pathogens. The use of antimicrobials in food animal production also contributes, because resistant organisms and resistance genes can spread from animals to humans by direct contact or through the food chain. An important, traditionally human, pathogen, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), is currently endemic in many hospitals around the world and has also emerged in the community. Recently, a new reservoir of MRSA has been identified in food production animals and people in contact with these animals. This involves a specific clone, multilocus sequence type 398 (ST398), which has spread extensively among animals. ST398 has also been found in up to 11.9% of retail meat samples in several surveys from different parts of the world, posing a potential threat to human health.     

Colonization of residents and staff of a long-term-care facility and adjacent acute-care hospital geriatric unit by multiresistant bacteria

Long-term-care facilities (LTCFs) are reservoirs of resistant bacteria. We undertook a point-prevalence survey and risk factor analysis for specific resistance types among residents and staff of a Bolzano LTCF and among geriatric unit patients in the associated acute-care hospital. Urine samples and rectal, inguinal, oropharyngeal and nasal swabs were plated on chromogenic agar; isolates were typed by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis; resistance genes and links to insertion sequences were sought by PCR; plasmids were analysed by PCR, restriction fragment length polymorphism and incompatibility grouping. Demographic data were collected. Of the LTCF residents, 74.8% were colonized with ≥1 resistant organism, 64% with extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL) producers, 38.7% with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), 6.3% with metallo-β-lactamase (MBL) producers, and 2.7% with vancomycin-resistant enterococci. Corresponding rates for LTCF staff were 27.5%, 14.5%, 14.5%, 1.5% and 0%, respectively. Colonization frequencies for geriatric unit patients were lower than for those in the LTCF. Both clonal spread and plasmid transfer were implicated in the dissemination of MBL producers that harboured IncN plasmids bearing bla_VIM-1, qnrS, and bla_SHV-12. Most (44/45) ESBL-producing Escherichia coli isolates had bla_CTX-M genes of group 1; a few had bla_CTX-M genes of group 9 or bla_SHV-5; those with bla_CTX-M-15 or bla_SHV-5 were clonal. Risk factors for colonization of LTCF residents with resistant bacteria included age ≥86 years, antibiotic treatment in the previous 3 months, indwelling devices, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, physical disability, and the particular LTCF unit; those for geriatric unit patients were age and dementia. In conclusion, ESBL-producing and MBL-producing Enterobacteriaceae and MRSA were prevalent among the LTCF residents and staff, but less so in the hospital geriatric unit. Education of LTCF employees and better infection control are proposed to minimize the spread of resistant bacteria in the facility.     

The Staphylococcus aureus lineage-specific markers collagen adhesin and toxic shock syndrome toxin 1 distinguish multilocus sequence typing clonal complexes within spa clonal complexes

Spa typing/based upon repeat pattern (BURP) sometimes cannot differentiate multilocus sequence typing (MLST) clonal complexes (CCs) within spa-CCs. It has been observed previously that virulence factors, such as collagen adhesin (CNA) and toxic shock syndrome toxin 1 (TSST-1), are associated with certain Staphylococcus aureus lineages. Analysis of methicillin-sensitive and methicillin-resistant S. aureus by spa typing/BURP and detection of CNA and TSST-1 observed an association between CNA and MLST CC1, 12, 22, 30, 45, 51, and 239 and between TSST-1 and MLST CC30. In spa-CC 012, associated with MLST CC7, CC15, and CC30, MLST CC30 could be distinguished from MLST CC7 and CC15 with CNA and TSST-1 as lineage-specific markers. Lineage-specific markers can overcome clustering of nonrelated MLST CCs into 1 spa-CC.     

Two cases of methicillin-resistant <Emphasis Type="Italic">Staphylococcus aureus</Emphasis> keratitis after Epi-LASIK

Background  We describe two severe cases of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) keratitis following Epi-LASIK surgery. Cases  One patient was a 23-year-old man who underwent Epi-LASIK surgery in both eyes. He developed an infectious corneal ulcer in one eye 2 days after surgery and was referred to us 7 days post-surgery with corneal perforation, for which we performed therapeutic penetrating keratoplasty. The other patient was a 32-year-old man who developed infectious keratitis in one eye 4 days after bilateral Epi-LASIK and was referred to us 2 days later. Observations  Microbial testing revealed MRSA infection as the cause of the keratitis in both patients which was successfully treated with vancomycin eyedrops. Conclusion  Infectious keratitis after refractive surgery is uncommon; it is important to diagnose this condition, identify the causative agent, and initiate treatment with appropriate antibiotics as soon as possible.     

黄芩苷/黄芩素对耐甲氧西林金黄色葡萄球菌抗药性的逆转作用研究

目的:研究黄芩苷/黄芩素对耐甲氧西林金黄色葡萄球菌(MRSA)抗药性的逆转作用,并初步探索其逆转机制。方法:以平皿法测定黄芩苷/黄芩素与苯唑西林对MRSA的协同抗菌效力;以分光光度法测定黄芩苷/黄芩素协同苯唑西林对MRSA生长密度的抑制作用;以青霉素结合蛋白(PBP2a)胶乳凝集试剂盒检测黄芩苷/黄芩素对PBP2a生成的抑制效力。结果:黄芩苷/黄芩素联合苯唑西林对临床分离的MRSA有显著的协同抗菌作用,16μg·mL-1的黄芩素即可显著逆转MRSA对苯唑西林的高度耐药;黄芩苷/黄芩素对MRSA产生PBP2a有显著抑制作用。结论:黄芩苷/黄芩素可通过抑制MRSA产生PBP2a来逆转其对苯唑西林的高度耐药,这一现象从理论上为临床治疗MRSA感染提供了新的方法和思路。     

Community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus,Finland

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is no longer only hospital acquired. MRSA is defined as community acquired if the MRSA-positive specimen was obtained outside hospital settings or within 2 days of hospital admission, and if it was from a person who had not been hospitalized within 2 years before the date of MRSA isolation. To estimate the proportion of community-acquired MRSA, we analyzed previous hospitalizations for all MRSA-positive persons in Finland from 1997 to 1999 by using data from the National Hospital Discharge Register. Of 526 MRSA-positive persons, 21% had community-acquired MRSA. Three MRSA strains identified by phage typing, pulsed-field gel electrophoresis, and ribotyping were associated with community acquisition. None of the strains were multiresistant, and all showed an mec hypervariable region hybridization pattern A (HVR type A). None of the epidemic multiresistant hospital strains were prevalent in nonhospitalized persons. Our population-based data suggest that community-acquired MRSA may also arise de novo, through horizontal acquisition of the mecA gene.     

Linezolid – ein neues Antibiotikum zur Behandlung von MRSA-Infektionen in der Unfallchirurgie? 2 Fallberichte

Problem: Infections with Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus are reported increasingly in intensive care unit and ward, that means not only a dangerous disease but also a considerable expenditure factor. Methods: In trauma surgery we could observe the Linezolid treatment of 2 patients with a MRSA infection. After treatment with Vancomycin and further evidence of MRSA the application of Linezolid was continued during 3 weeks accompanied by further microbiologic investigations. Results: In a 73 year old man with humerus shaft fracture the MRSA osteomyelitis was eradicated with Linezolid (600 mg/day per os over 3 weeks) after radical débridement and reosteosynthesis. The MRSA pneumonia in a 14 year old girl was treated successfully by Linezolid (600 mg/day i.v. over 3 weeks) and pneumotherapy. Follow up excluded further MRSA infection. Conclusions: Linezolid represents an efficient new reserve antibiotic. In case of pneumonia, severe skin and soft tissue infections good results can be expected. The treatment of osteomyelitis has been reported only in single cases.     

耐甲氧西林金黄色葡萄球菌两种基因分型方法的对比研究

目的 比较耐甲氧西林金黄色葡萄球菌（MRSA）两种基因分型方法的特点，为MRSA流行病学调查选用合适的基因分型方法提供参考。方法用聚合酶链反应（PCR）扩增MRSA基因高变区（Hypervariable region，HVR），并根据扩增片段大小进行基因分型，同时与ERIC-2随机引物多态性DNA分型法进行比较，并观察不同退火温度条件下两种基因分型方法的差异。结果 50株MRSA以基因高变区（HVR）分型，可分为A、B、C、DE5种基因型，其中以B（47．3％）和D（32．1％）型多见，A（3．5％）、C（10．7％）、E（6．4％）型少见，当退火温度改变时，则不能分型；用ERIC-2随机引物对MRSA进行多态性DNA分型，在低退火温度下分为10种基因型，当退火温度明显改变时，仍能分型，但每型的扩增片断明显减少。结论随机引物多态性DNA分型和HVR基因分型两种方法均能用于MRSA感染的流行病学研究，HVR基因分型PCR反应温度控制严格，分型明确；而随机引物多态性ERIC-2的DNA分型随PCR退火温度的变化而变化，应用时需严格控制PCR退火温度等反应参数，否则重复性较差。     

抗MRSA海绵真菌的分离及菌株W0707的鉴定

目的对采自海南、湛江海域的海绵样品进行真菌选择性分离,对其发酵液进行抗MRSA活性筛选,并对活性较好的菌株进行鉴定。方法以耐甲氧西林金黄色葡萄球菌MRSA3558为指示菌,利用KB法进行活性菌株筛选,通过对菌株的培养特征、形态特征、18S rDNA序列测定及其系统发育分析对菌株W0707进行鉴定。结果与结论添加青霉素和链霉素的海水马丁氏培养基具有很好的培养真菌选择性,共分离得到真菌133株,活性筛选得到阳性菌株4株,其中菌株W0707具有较强的抗MRSA活性,通过各种指标鉴定菌株W0707为土曲霉(Aspergillus terreus)。