Understanding peroral absorption: regulatory aspects and contemporary approaches to tackling solubility and permeability hurdles

Oral drug absorption is a process influenced by the physicochemical and biopharmaceutical properties of the drug and its inter-relationship with the gastrointestinal tract. Drug solubility, dissolution and permeability across intestinal barrier are the key parameters controlling absorption. This review provides an overview of the factors that affect drug absorption and the classification of a drug on the basis of solubility and permeability. The biopharmaceutical classification system (BCS) was introduced in early 90׳s and is a regulatory tool used to predict bioavailability problems associated with a new entity, thereby helping in the development of a drug product. Strategies to combat solubility and permeability issues are also discussed.     

注射用辅酶A、三磷酸腺苷二钠及肌苷注射液配伍稳定性考察

摘 要 目的：考察注射用辅酶A、三磷酸腺苷二钠注射液及肌苷注射液在5%葡萄糖注射液中的配伍稳定性。 方法: 在室温条件下,模拟临床用药方法,配制3种药物与5%葡萄糖注射液的配伍溶液,采用HPLC法测定辅酶A、三磷酸腺苷二钠和肌苷的含量及有关物质变化情况,同时考察配伍溶液的外观、pH和不溶性微粒的变化情况。结果: 室温下4 h内,配伍溶液的外观、pH、不溶性微粒、各药物含量及有关物质均无明显变化;24 h后,配伍溶液出现浑浊絮状物,pH、不溶性微粒、含量及有关物质均明显发生变化。结论:在室温条件下,注射用辅酶A、三磷酸腺苷二钠注射液及肌苷注射液在5%葡萄糖注射液中的配伍溶液应于4 h内使用完。     

腺苷三磷酸-氯化镁对大鼠肾脏缺血再灌注损伤的保护作用

[目的 ]通过观察肾脏组织中钠钾 腺苷三磷酸酶和钙 腺苷三磷酸酶活性和病理组织学变化 ,探讨腺苷三磷酸 氯化镁对肾脏缺血再灌注损伤的保护作用机理 .[方法 ]将大鼠随机分为 3组 ,分别用生物化学方法观察再灌注 0h ,2h ,6h的钠钾 腺苷三磷酸酶和钙 腺苷三磷酸酶活性的变化以及组织病理学变化 .[结果 ]腺苷三磷酸 氯化镁组和对照组肾小管上皮细胞变性、坏死数低于缺血再灌注组 ,而腺苷三磷酸 氯化镁组和对照组之间无显著性差异 .钠钾 腺苷三磷酸酶和钙 腺苷三磷酸酶的活性在腺苷三磷酸 氯化镁组和对照组之间无显著性差异 ,但两组均高于缺血再灌注组 .[结论 ]腺苷三磷酸 氯化镁对大鼠肾脏缺血再灌注损伤有保护作用 .     

Rociletinib (CO-1686) enhanced the efficacy of chemotherapeutic agents in ABCG2-overexpressing cancer cells in vitro and in vivo

Overexpression of adenosine triphosphate (ATP)-binding cassette subfamily G member 2 (ABCG2) in cancer cells is known to cause multidrug resistance (MDR), which severely limits the clinical efficacy of chemotherapy. Currently, there is no FDA-approved MDR modulator for clinical use. In this study, rociletinib (CO-1686), a mutant-selective epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) tyrosine kinase inhibitor (TKI), was found to significantly improve the efficacy of ABCG2 substrate chemotherapeutic agents in the transporter-overexpressing cancer cells in vitro and in MDR tumor xenografts in nude mice, without incurring additional toxicity. Mechanistic studies revealed that in ABCG2-overexpressing cancer cells, rociletinib inhibited ABCG2-mediated drug efflux and increased intracellular accumulation of ABCG2 probe substrates. Moreover, rociletinib, inhibited the ATPase activity, and competed with [¹²⁵I] iodoarylazidoprazosin (IAAP) photolabeling of ABCG2. However, ABCG2 expression at mRNA and protein levels was not altered in the ABCG2-overexpressing cells after treatment with rociletinib. In addition, rociletinib did not inhibit EGFR downstream signaling and phosphorylation of protein kinase B (AKT) and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK). Our results collectively showed that rociletinib reversed ABCG2-mediated MDR by inhibiting ABCG2 efflux function, thus increasing the cellular accumulation of the transporter substrate anticancer drugs. The findings advocated the combination use of rociletinib and other chemotherapeutic drugs in cancer patients with ABCG2-overexpressing MDR tumors.     

Functional genetic evaluation of DNA house-cleaning enzymes in the malaria parasite: dUTPase and Ap4AH are essential in Plasmodium berghei but ITPase and NDH are dispensable

Background: Cellular metabolism generates reactive oxygen species. The oxidation and deamination of the deoxynucleoside triphosphate (dNTP) pool results in the formation of non-canonical, toxic dNTPs that can cause mutations, genome instability, and cell death. House-cleaning or sanitation enzymes that break down and detoxify non-canonical nucleotides play major protective roles in nucleotide metabolism and constitute key drug targets for cancer and various pathogens. We hypothesized that owing to their protective roles in nucleotide metabolism, these house-cleaning enzymes are key drug targets in the malaria parasite.

Methods: Using the rodent malaria parasite Plasmodium berghei we evaluate here, by gene targeting, a group of conserved proteins with a putative function in the detoxification of non-canonical nucleotides as potential antimalarial drug targets: they are inosine triphosphate pyrophosphatase (ITPase), deoxyuridine triphosphate pyrophosphatase (dUTPase) and two NuDiX hydroxylases, the diadenosine tetraphosphate (Ap4A) hydrolase and the nucleoside triphosphate hydrolase (NDH).

Results: While all four proteins are expressed constitutively across the intraerythrocytic developmental cycle, neither ITPase nor NDH are required for parasite viability. dutpase and ap4ah null mutants, on the other hand, are not viable suggesting an essential function for these proteins for the malaria parasite.

Conclusions: Plasmodium dUTPase and Ap4A could be drug targets in the malaria parasite.     

Department of Etiology and Department of Pharmacology

INTRODUCTION　　 Enteropathogenic E.coli (EPEC) is one of theimportant pathogens for infant diarrhoae and urinarytract infections in adults.The chemotherapy andchemoprophylaxis of EPEC infections by antibiotics arechallenged by the development of multi- resistant strainsand the colonization of pathogenic bacteria in vivo as aresult of gutflora dysfunction.Since late1980 s’,ithasbeen found that the infection of mammalian cells byEPEC occured in two steps:adhesion of bacteria to cells…     

注射用三磷酸胞苷二钠有关物质检验方法的建立

目的:建立注射用三磷酸胞苷二钠(CTP-Na2)有关物质检验方法。方法:采用高效液相色谱法,以C18为填充柱,以含反相离子对试剂的磷酸盐缓冲液为流动相[0.02 mol·L^-1磷酸盐缓冲液-乙腈(90∶10)];流速:1.0 mL·min^-1;检测波长:271 nm;柱温:35℃,采用校正因子计算有关物质。结果:CTP-Na 2在0.093~1.860 mg·mL^-1范围内,溶液的浓度与峰面积的线性关系良好,r=0.9997;平均回收率为99.6%(RSD=1.5%,n=9),CTP-Na2对照品溶液在25 h内的稳定性良好(RSD=0.7%);CTP-Na2及主要降解杂质二磷酸胞苷二钠(CDP-Na2)、单磷酸胞苷二钠(CMP-Na2)的方法定量限分别为4.1、2.1、2.8 ng,检出限分别为0.82、0.16、0.22 ng。结论:现行质量标准中有关物质项存在诸多问题,新建的检测方法操作简便、灵敏度高,可用于质量控制。     

参附注射液对脑缺血再灌注损伤大鼠脑能量代谢的影响

目的 探讨参附注射液对脑缺血再灌注损伤大鼠的脑能量代谢的影响及其可能的机制.方法 ♂ SD大鼠30只,随机均分为空白对照组(C组)、脑缺血再灌注组(IR组)、参附注射液预处理组(SFI组).HPLC测定大鼠脑组织中的高能磷酸化合物三磷酸腺苷(ATP)的含量;应用乳酸及Na+-K+-ATPase检测试剂盒观察大鼠脑组织中乳酸及Na+-K+-ATPase的变化.结果 C组、IR组大鼠脑组织中乳酸含量为0.20±0.04、0.70±0.05 mmol·g-1;C组ATP的含量为416.81±20.52 ng·mL-1,Na+-K+-ATPase为5.98±0.53μmol· mg·h-1,而IR组大鼠脑组织中ATP的含量及Na+-K+-ATPase的活性均明显低于C组(P＜0.01),表明脑缺血再灌注损伤大鼠模型的建立成功;而给予SFI预处理后,SFI组大鼠脑组织中乳酸含量降低到0.42±0.04 mmol·g-1,明显低于IR组(P＜0.01),而ATP的含量及Na+-K+-ATPase活性则均较IR组明显升高(P＜0.01).结论 参附注射液预处理可以通过提高缺血再灌注大鼠脑组织中的ATP含量、增强Na+-K+-ATPase的活性,降低脑组织中乳酸的含量,以改善大鼠的脑缺血再灌注损伤.     

The AMPK enzyme-complex: from the regulation of cellular energy homeostasis to a possible new molecular target in the management of chronic inflammatory disorders

Introduction: Adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK), known as an enzymatic complex that regulates the energetic metabolism, is emerging as a pivotal enzyme and enzymatic pathway involved in the regulation of immune homeostatic networks. It is also involved in the molecular mechanisms underlying the pathophysiology of chronic inflammatory diseases.

Areas covered: AMPK is expressed in several immune cell types including macrophages, lymphocytes, neutrophils and dendritic cells, and governs a broad array of cell functions, which include cytokine production, chemotaxis, cytotoxicity, apoptosis and proliferation. Based on its wide variety of immunoregulatory actions, the AMPK system has been targeted to reveal its impact on the course of immune-related diseases, such as atherosclerosis, psoriasis, joint inflammation and inflammatory bowel diseases.

Expert opinion: The identification of AMPK subunits responsible for specific anti-inflammatory actions and the understanding of the underlying molecular mechanisms will promote the generation of novel AMPK activators, endowed with improved pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic profiles. These new tools will aid us to utilize AMPK pathway activation in the management of acute and chronic inflammatory diseases, while minimizing potential adverse reactions related to the effects of AMPK on metabolic energy.     

Protein kinase C isoforms as specific targets for modulation of vascular smooth muscle function in hypertension

Vascular contraction is an important determinant of the peripheral vascular resistance and blood pressure. The mechanisms underlying vascular smooth muscle (VSM) contraction and the pathological changes that occur in hypertension have been the subject of numerous studies and interpretations. Activation of VSM by vasoconstrictor stimuli at the cell surface causes an increase in [Ca(2+)](i), Ca(2+)-dependent activation of myosin light chain (MLC) kinase, MLC phosphorylation, actin-myosin interaction and VSM contraction. Additional signaling pathways involving Rho-kinase and protein kinase C (PKC) may increase the myofilament force sensitivity to [Ca(2+)](i) and MLC phosphorylation, and thereby maintain vascular contraction. PKC is a particularly intriguing protein kinase as it comprises a family of Ca(2+)-dependent and Ca(2+)-independent isoforms, which have different tissue and subcellular distribution, and undergo differential translocation during cell activation. PKC translocation to the cell surface may trigger a cascade of protein kinases, such as mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and MAPK kinase (MEK) that ultimately interact with the contractile myofilaments and cause VSM contraction. Also, PKC translocation to the nucleus may promote VSM growth and proliferation. Increased PKC expression and activity have been identified in several forms of hypertension. The subcellular location of PKC may determine the state of VSM activity, and may be useful in the diagnosis/prognosis of hypertension. Vascular PKC isoforms may represent specific targets for modulation of VSM hyperactivity, and isoform-specific PKC inhibitors may be useful in treatment of Ca(2+) antagonist-resistant forms of hypertension.