Oxaliplatin-induced neuropathic pain involves HOXA6 via a TET1-dependent demethylation of the SOX10 promoter

Chemotherapy-induced neuropathic pain is a common dose-limiting side effect of cancer treatment but the underlying mechanisms are largely unknown. Here, we used a whole-genome expression microarray and gene ontology analysis to identify the upregulation of a sequence-specific DNA-binding protein, HOXA6, in the spinal dorsal horn on Day 10 after injection of rats with oxaliplatin. Genetic disruption of HOXA6 with siRNAs alleviated mechanical allodynia after oxaliplatin administration. Reduced representation bisulfite sequencing assays indicated that oxaliplatin decreased the methylation levels of the SOX10 promoter but not of HOXA6. TET1 was also upregulated by oxaliplatin. Genetic disruption of TET1 with siRNA blocked the promoter demethylation of SOX10 and the upregulation of HOXA6 and SOX10. Importantly, inhibition of SOX10 by intrathecal application of SOX10 siRNA ameliorated the mechanical allodynia induced by oxaliplatin and downregulated the expression of HOXA6. Consistently, overexpression of SOX10 through intraspinal injection of AAV-SOX10-EGFP produced mechanical allodynia and upregulated the expression of spinal dorsal horn HOXA6. Moreover, chromatin immunoprecipitation assays demonstrated that oxaliplatin increased the binding of SOX10 to the promoter region of HOXA6. Taken together, our data suggest that HOXA6 upregulation through the TET1-mediated promoter demethylation of SOX10 may contribute to oxaliplatin-induced neuropathic pain.     

Opiate-induced persistent pronociceptive trigeminal neural adaptations: potential relevance to opiate-induced medication overuse headache

Medication overuse headache (MOH) is a challenging, debilitating disorder that develops from the frequent use of medications taken for the treatment of migraine headache pain. MOH affects an estimated 3–5% of the general population. The mechanisms underlying the development of MOH remain unknown. Opiates are one of the major classes of medications used for the treatment of migraine at least in some countries, including the USA. Although the effects of repeated opiate use for headache are unknown, it is possible that opiate use may contribute to increased frequency and occurrence of such headaches. Recent preclinical studies exploring the neuroadaptive changes following sustained exposure to morphine may give some insights into possible causes of MOH. Peripherally, these changes include increased expression of calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) in trigeminal primary afferent neurons. Centrally, they include increased excitatory neurotransmission at the level of the dorsal horn and nucleus caudalis. Critically, these neuroadaptive changes persist for long periods of time and the evoked release of CGRP is enhanced following morphine pretreatment. Stimuli known to elicit migraine, such as nitric oxide donors or stress, produce hyperalgesia in morphine- but not in saline-pretreated rats even long after the discontinuation of the opiate. CGRP plays a prominent role in initiating vasodilation of the intracranial blood vessels and subsequent headache. Furthermore, studies have demonstrated increased excitability of the nociceptive pathway in migraine sufferers, and CGRP receptor antagonists have been shown to be efficacious in migraine pain. Thus, such persistent neuroadaptive changes may be relevant to the processes that promote MOH.     

脊髓小胶质细胞激活对SNI模型大鼠神经病理性疼痛的影响

目的观察小胶质细胞对大鼠坐骨神经分支选择性损伤(SNI)所致神经病理性疼痛的影响。方法选择雄性SD大鼠64只,随机分为4组(n=16):假手术组(Sh组);模型组(SNI组);模型 米诺环素40mg/kg组(Mb组);模型 米诺环素10mg/kg组(Ms组)。其中Mb和Ms组从造模前1d起连续7d每日2次腹腔注射相应剂量的米诺环素。分别记录全组动物在术前1d及术后1,3,5,7,14d的机械缩足反射阈值(MWT)和热缩足反射持续时间(TWD)作为大鼠疼痛行为学指标;各组大鼠分别在术后1,3,5,7,14d随机选取4只处死,取脊髓,用免疫荧光的方法检测脊髓小胶质细胞标志物OX-42的表达。结果SNI组从术后1d起即出现明显MWT降低和TWD延长,与术前及Sh组术后各时点比较均有统计学差异(P<0.05);Mb组和Ms组与SNI组相应时点比较MWT降低和TWD延长程度有显著性差异(P<0.05);Mb与Ms组比较MWT降低和TWD延长程度有统计学差异(P<0.05);Mb、Ms组与SNI组比较脊髓OX-42的表达减少,并呈剂量依赖性。结论米诺环素腹腔注射可剂量依赖性的减少OX-42的表达,抑制脊髓小胶质细胞的激活,减轻痛觉超敏和痛觉过敏,提示小胶质细胞的活化参与SNI神经病理痛的形成。     

Changes in nerve growth factor levels in dorsal root ganglia and spinal nerves in a rat neuropathic pain model

The purpose of this study was to measure the changes in levels of nerve growth factor (NGF) in dorsal root ganglia (DRG) and spinal nerves with the aim of investigating the role of NGF in a rat neuropathic pain model. Nerve injuries were made by tight ligation of the left L5 and L6 spinal nerves using 6-0 silk thread in male Sprague-Dawley rats. Before surgery and 1, 3, 5, 7, and 14 days after surgery, tissue samples collected included the L3-6 DRGs bilaterally, segments of the ipsilateral L5-6 spinal nerves proximal and distal to ligation sites, and corresponding sites of the contralateral L3-6 and the ipsilateral L3-4 spinal nerves. NGF levels in the DRGs of the injured spinal nerves (the left L5 and L6) did not change significantly from control values. The spinal nerve segments distal to ligation sites had higher levels of NGF than the control values. Unlesioned sites did not show any significant changes in NGF levels. The increase of NGF in distal segments of injured spinal nerves may be due to an accumulation of retrogradely transported NGF. The maintenance of NGF levels in the DRGs that had lost peripheral connections may reflect local synthesis after nerve injury.     

Effect of lumbar 5 ventral root transection on pain behaviors: a novel rat model for neuropathic pain without axotomy of primary sensory neurons

A peripheral nerve injury often causes neuropathic pain but the underlying mechanisms remain obscure. Several established animal models of peripheral neuropathic pain have greatly advanced our understanding of the diverse mechanisms of neuropathic pain. A common feature of these models is primary sensory neuron injury and the commingle of intact axons with degenerating axons in the sciatic nerve. Here we investigated whether neuropathic pain could be induced without sensory neuron injury following exposure of their peripheral axons to the milieu of Wallerian degeneration. We developed a unilateral lumbar 5 ventral root transection (L5 VRT) model in adult rats, in which L5 ventral root fibers entering the sciatic nerve were sectioned in the spinal canal. This model differs from previous ones in that DRG neurons and their afferents are kept uninjured and intact afferents expose to products of degenerating efferent ventral root fibers in the sciatic nerve and the denervated muscles. We found that the L5 VRT produced rapid (24 h after transection), robust and prolonged (56 days) bilateral mechanical allodynia, to a similar extent to that in rats with L5 spinal nerve transection (L5 SNT), cold allodynia and short-term thermal hyperalgesia (14 days). Furthermore, L5 VRT led to significant inflammation as demonstrated by infiltration of ED-1-positive monocytes/macrophages in the DRG, sciatic nerve and muscle fibers. These findings demonstrated that L5 VRT produced behavioral signs of neuropathic pain with high mechanical sensitivity and thermal responsiveness, and suggested that neuropathic pain can be induced without damage to sensory neurons. We propose that neuropathic pain in this model may be mediated by primed intact sensory neurons, which run through the milieu of Wallerian degeneration and inflammation after nerve injury. The L5 VRT model manifests the complex regional pain syndrome in some human patients, and it may provide an additional dimension to dissect out the mechanisms underlying neuropathic pain.     

Chronic pain after clip-compression injury of the rat spinal cord

Chronic tactile allodynia and hyperalgesia are frequent complications of spinal cord injury (SCI) with poorly understood mechanisms. Possible causes are plastic changes in the central arbors of nociceptive and nonnociceptive primary sensory neurons and changes in descending modulatory serotonergic pathways. A clinically relevant clip-compression model of SCI in the rat was used to investigate putative mechanisms of chronic pain. Behavioral testing (n = 18 rats) demonstrated that moderate (35 g) or severe (50 g) SCI at the 12th thoracic spinal segment (T-12) reliably produces chronic tactile allodynia and hyperalgesia that can be evoked from the hindpaws and back. Quantitative morphometry (n = 37) revealed no changes after SCI in the density or distribution of Abeta-, Adelta-, and C-fiber central arbors of primary sensory neurons within the thoracolumbar segments T-6 to L-4. This observation rules out a mandatory relationship between pain-related behaviors and changes in the distribution or density of central afferent arbors. The area of serotonin immunoreactivity in the dorsal horn (n = 12) decreased caudal to the injury site (L1-4) and increased threefold rostral to it (T9-11). The decreased serotonin and presence of tactile allodynia and hyperalgesia caudal to the injury are consistent with disruption of descending antinociceptive serotonergic tracts that modulate pain transmission. The functional significance of the increased serotonin in rostral segments may relate to the development of tactile allodynia as serotonin also has known pronociceptive actions. Changes in the descending serotonergic pathway require further investigation, as a disruption of the balance of serotonergic input rostral and caudal to the injury site may contribute to the etiology of chronic pain after SCI.     

Lamotrigine monotherapy for control of neuralgia after nerve section

BACKGROUND: We present six patients treated only with the new-generation anticonvulsant lamotrigine to define its sole effect on neuralgia after nerve section. METHODS: Previous surgical or pharmacological attempts failed to relieve this neuropathic pain in our patients. Before initiation of lamotrigine therapy, patients reported spontaneous and touch-evoked shooting pain followed by periods of burning pain. No breakthrough medication was needed during the maintenance phase of 1-23 months. Data were acquired by a pain diary on a weekly basis. RESULTS: With 75-300 mg of lamotrigine per day, the burning and shooting pain intensity was relieved by 33-100%. Most obviously, the attack frequency of the shooting pain was reduced by 80-100%. No adverse effects were observed. CONCLUSION: We conclude that lamotrigine may be beneficial in the treatment of neuralgia after nerve section following the failure of previous pharmacological or surgical attempts.     

炎症痛引起的猫背根节Aβ神经元自发放电特性的分析

应用角叉菜胶后肢局部致炎作为炎症痛的实验动物模型，通过在细胞内记录技术，观察和分析了猫脊髓背根节Aβ神经元的自发放电特性和诱因。结果表明炎症痛导致猫背根节有自发放电的Aβ神经元数明显增加，并表现为持续高频、簇状和不规则等多种型式的放电；在炎症痛不同时程（4和12h），静息膜电位有一定程度的去极化；大多数有自发放电活动的神经元（91％）对外周机械性刺激表现为兴奋反应，其中有部分神经元（9％）同时具有兴奋性和抑制性感受野。胞体给予TTX能阻断这种自发放电；切断外周神经干能使这种自发放电消失，而切断其背根不影响这种自发放电活动。提示炎症痛猫背根节Aβ神经元的兴奋性增强与炎症部位持续性痛的存在相关，可能是炎症性触诱发痛（Allodynia）形成的基础。