Glycation—a sweet tempter for neuronal death

Glycation, one of the post-translational modifications of proteins, is a nonenzymatic reaction initiated by the primary addition of a sugar aldehyde or ketone to the amino groups of proteins. In the early stage of glycation, the synthesis of intermediates leading to the formation of Amadori compounds occurs. In the late stage, advanced glycation end products (AGE) are irreversibly formed after a complex cascade of reactions. Several AGEs have been characterized chemically, while other new compounds remain to be identified. To date, studies of the contribution of glycation to diseases have been primarily focused on its relationship to diabetes and diabetes-related complications. However, glucose-induced damage is not limited to diabetic patients. Although it does not cause rapid or remarkable cell damage, glycation advances slowly and accompanies every fundamental process of cellular metabolism. It has recently become clear that glycation also affects physiological aging and neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Glycation alters the biological activity of proteins and their degradation processes. Protein cross-linking by AGE results in the formation of detergent-insoluble and protease-resistant aggregates. Such aggregates may interfere with both axonal transport and intracellular protein traffic in neurons. In addition, glycation reactions lead to the production of reactive oxygen species. Conversely, glycation is promoted by oxidative stress. We speculate on the presence of synergism between glycation and oxidative stress. In this review, we provide an outline of glycation and propose some possible mechanisms of its cytotoxicity and defense systems against it.     

Degradation products of proteins damaged by glycation, oxidation and nitration in clinical type 1 diabetes

Aims/hypothesis Hyperglycaemia in diabetes is associated with increased glycation, oxidative stress and nitrosative stress. Proteins modified consequently contain glycation, oxidation and nitration adduct residues, and undergo cellular proteolysis with release of corresponding free adducts. These free adducts leak into blood plasma for eventual renal excretion. The aim of this study was to perform a comprehensive quantitative analysis of protein glycation, oxidation and nitration adduct residues in plasma protein and haemoglobin as well as of free adducts in plasma and urine to quantify increased protein damage and flux of proteolytic degradation products in diabetes.Methods Type 1 diabetic patients (n=21) and normal healthy control subjects (n=12) were studied. Venous blood samples, with heparin anticoagulant, and 24-h urine samples were taken. Samples were analysed for protein glycation, oxidation and nitration adducts by a quantitative comprehensive screening method using liquid chromatography with triple quadrupole mass spectrometric detection.Results In type 1 diabetic patients, the concentrations of protein glycation, oxidation and nitration adduct residues increased up to three-fold in plasma protein and up to one-fold in haemoglobin, except for decreases in pentosidine and 3-nitrotyrosine residues in haemoglobin when compared with normal control subjects. In contrast, the concentrations of protein glycation and oxidation free adducts increased up to ten-fold in blood plasma, and urinary excretion increased up to 15-fold in diabetic patients.Conclusions/interpretation We conclude that there are profound increases in proteolytic products of glycated and oxidised proteins in diabetic patients, concurrent with much lower increases in protein glycation and oxidation adduct residues.     

晚期糖基化终产物诱导ECV304细胞株氧化增强的可能机制

目的探讨晚期糖基化终产物诱导细胞株ECV304氧化增强的机制。方法取ECV304细胞培养,与不同浓度的晚期糖基化终产物-人血清白蛋白共孵育,或分别经NADPH氧化酶抑制剂Apocynin或蛋白激酶C抑制剂GF109203或酪氨酸蛋白激酶抑制剂Genistein预孵育0.5 h后,再与晚期糖基化终产物—人血清白蛋白共孵育,1h后收集细胞,用细胞色素C法检测O2-.,ThioGlo-1试剂检测还原型谷胱甘肽。结果12.5 mg/L、50 mg/L和200mg/L晚期糖基化终产物—人血清白蛋白可导致ECV304细胞内O2-.从1.37±0.67 nmol/(107.h)增加到3.44±0.40、10.67±0.67和10.93±0.67 nmol/(107.h),使还原型谷胱甘肽从9.54±0.41 nmol/106降低到9.02±0.21、8.41±0.34和8.02±0.18 nmol/106,两者均呈剂量依赖性。Apocynin、GF109203及Genistein均可抑制O2-.的增加及还原型谷胱甘肽的降低。结论晚期糖基化终产物-人血清白蛋白可通过蛋白激酶C和酪氨酸蛋白激酶途径激活NADPH氧化酶,引起ECV304细胞内O2-.产生及还原型谷胱甘肽降低,导致细胞内氧化增强。     

Colorimetric versus radioimmunological measurement of glycated and non-glycated serum albumin after affinity chromatography

Summary Affinity chromatography bym-aminophenylboronic acid has been proposed for routine measurement of glycated albumin. We assayed glycated and non-glycated fractions of serum albumin (HSA) eluted by affinity chromatography columns by both a specific RIA method for the human serum albumin (HSA) and by a colorimetric method. Sixteen diabetic patients presented a significantly higher percentage of glycated-HSA than 7 control subjects with both methods, and a strong correlation was found between the values obtained with the two methods. RIA was able to dectect a significant concentration of glycated-HSA in all normal subjects, while the colorimetric method was not. The accuracy of separation between the glycated and non-glycated fractions of albumin was tested using [¹⁴C]glucose as tracer. When [¹⁴C]glycated-HSA purified by Sephadex G25 filtration was chromatographed using them-aminophenylboronic acid, only 5.3% of the total¹⁴C-radioactivity present in the solution was recovered in the bound fraction, while 44.0% was eluted in non-protein-bound fraction and 54.7% was retained in the column. Our findings confirm that affinity chromatography bym-aminophenylboronic acid can be a useful tool in the monitoring of short glycemic control of diabetic patients. Our data also indicate that the affinity chromatography withm-aminophenylboronic acid does not accurately discriminate between glycated and non-glycated fraction of HSA.     

Accumulation of advanced glycation end-products in human dentine

Cross-linking of collagen by Advanced Glycation End-products (AGEs) occurs by non-enzymatic glycation (Maillard reaction). The purpose of this study was to examine whether AGEs are formed in human dentinal collagen, and to consider any possible influence of AGEs on dentinal physiology. Mechanical characteristics, fluorescence spectra and immunohistochemical analyses of demineralized dentine sections from young subjects were compared with those of aged ones. The same investigations were performed with young dentine artificially glycated by incubation in 0.1 M ribose solution. Indentation measurement indicated that the sections from aged dentine were mechanically harder than those from young dentine. The hardness of young dentine increased after incubation in ribose solution. Fluorescence peak wavelength of the young dentine was shorter than that of the aged one, but shifted towards the peak wavelength of the aged one after incubation in ribose solution. These changes were considered to be due to accumulation of AGEs. Existence of AGEs in dentinal collagen was confirmed by immunohistochemical analysis. The obtained results suggest that AGEs accumulation occurs in dentinal collagen and is affected by both human age and physiological conditions such as glucose level in blood because dentinal collagen receives nourishment via dental pulp and tubules.     

Thiobarbiturate and fructosamine assays: significance and interest of the borohydride blank

The acute-phase reaction (APR) induces the production by the liver of short-lived glycoproteins. The carbohydrate moiety of these proteins is thought to interfere with the thiobarbiturate (TBA) and nitroblue tetrazolium colorimetric tests which are used for assaying non-enzymatic glycosylation (NEG) of serum proteins. The aim of the present study was to assess the effect of the APR on the specificity of the colorimetric tests in non-diabetic and diabetic subjects. A positive correlation was found between C-reactive protein (CRP), an APR glycoprotein, and non-specific TBA reactivity as determined after borohydride reduction (BH₄-resistant TBA, BR-TBA), both in non-diabetics (r=0.61;P<0.01) and diabetics (r=0.68;P<0.01). The BH₄-sensitive specific TBA (SP-TBA) was not influenced by glycoproteins, and its increase in diabetics was correlated with the nitroblue tetrazolium assay (r=0.89;P<0.01). An independant effect of diabetes and APR on non-specific TBA was also demonstrated, suggesting an effect of hyperglycaemia on both protein glycation and glycosylation. TBA with borohydride reduction is an attractive tool for the study of complex glycoproteins in diabetes.     

糖基化终产物对平滑肌细胞增殖及纤溶酶原激活物抑制剂1基因表达的影响

目的探讨糖基化终产物对大鼠平滑肌细胞增殖以及纤溶酶原激活物抑制剂1基因表达的影响。方法体外分离培养大鼠平滑肌细胞,以不同浓度(50、100、200和400mg/L)糖基化终产物作用于平滑肌细胞不同时间(0、4、8、16、24、48、72和96h),MTT法观察糖基化终产物对平滑肌细胞增殖的影响,逆转录聚合酶链反应测定纤溶酶原激活物抑制剂1基因的表达。结果不同浓度的糖基化终产物作用8h均对平滑肌细胞增殖无影响,以后各时间点不同浓度的糖基化终产物均导致平滑肌细胞增殖,与对照组比较差异有显著性(P<0.05)。糖基化终产物作用不同时间均可使平滑肌细胞表达纤溶酶原激活物抑制剂1基因水平升高,且随着浓度升高而增加(分别为0.85±0.05、0.97±0.05、1.08±0.12和1.41±0.05),与对照组(0.80±0.03)比较差异有显著性(P<0.05)。结论糖基化终产物诱导血管平滑肌细胞增殖并增加纤溶酶原激活物抑制剂1基因表达是糖尿病患者易患动脉粥样硬化的可能原因。     

肌肽预防白内障形成的作用

肌肽(β-丙氨酰组氨酸)是最先被发现的最简单生物活性肽(二肽)。肌肽的抗衰老作用已经从离体实验和活体实验得到了证明。最近发现肌肽具有抑制白内障形成的作用,其作用的分子机制尚不十分清楚,可能是通过抗蛋白质的糖基化;抗氧化损伤;抑制蛋白质交联和DNA的损伤机制发挥功能。深入研究肌肽的生物学特性及其抑制白内障形成的机制,将为白内障的药物治疗提供新的方法。     

Meniscal material properties are minimally affected by matrix stabilization using glutaraldehyde and glycation with ribose.

Knee meniscus replacement holds promise, but current allografts are susceptible to biodegradation. Matrix stabilization with glutaraldehyde, a crosslinking agent used clinically to fabricate cardiovascular bioprostheses, or with glycation, a process of crosslinking collagen with sugars such as ribose, is a potential means of rendering tissue resistant to such degradation. However, stabilization should not significantly alter meniscal material properties, which could disturb normal function in the knee. Our objective was to evaluate the effects of glutaraldehyde- and glycation-induced matrix stabilization on the material properties of porcine meniscus. Normal untreated meniscus specimens were tested in confined compression at one of three applied stresses (0.069, 0.208, 0.347 MPa), subjected to either a glutaraldehyde or glycation stabilization treatment, and then re-tested to measure changes in tissue aggregate modulus, permeability, and compressive strain at equilibrium. Changes in these properties significantly increased with glutaraldehyde concentration and exposure time to ribose. One glutaraldehyde and three glycation treatments did not alter aggregate modulus or compressive strain at equilibrium compared to controls (p > 0.10). However, all treatments increased permeability by at least 108% compared to controls (p < 0.001). This study reveals a dose-dependent relationship between meniscal material properties and certain stabilization conditions and identifies treatments that minimally affect these properties. Further research is necessary to determine whether these treatments prevent enzymatic degradation before and after surgical implantation in the knee.     

晚期糖基化终产物诱导血管内皮细胞环氧合酶2表达

目的探讨晚期糖基化终产物对人血管内皮细胞环氧合酶2表达的影响。方法取人脐静脉内皮细胞ECV304与人血清白蛋白修饰的晚期糖基化终产物体外共同培养,然后用Western blot检测环氧合酶2的表达水平。结果内皮细胞环氧合酶2基础表达水平极低,人血清白蛋白修饰的晚期糖基化终产物可诱导环氧合酶2的表达,呈时间与剂量依赖关系;抑制核因子κB的活性可抑制环氧合酶2的表达。结论人血清白蛋白修饰的晚期糖基化终产物可通过激活核因子κB,而引起环氧合酶2的表达。这一作用机制可能参与血管损伤反应。