Nonfunctional NaV1.1 familial hemiplegic migraine mutant transformed into gain of function by partial rescue of folding defects

Familial hemiplegic migraine (FHM) is a rare subtype of migraine with aura. Mutations causing FHM type 3 have been identified in SCN1A, the gene encoding the Na_v1.1 Na⁺ channel, which is also a major target of epileptogenic mutations and is particularly important for the excitability of GABAergic neurons. However, functional studies of Na_V1.1 FHM mutations have generated controversial results. In particular, it has been shown that the Na_V1.1-L1649Q mutant is nonfunctional when expressed in a human cell line because of impaired plasma membrane expression, similarly to Na_V1.1 mutants that cause severe epilepsy, but we have observed gain-of-function effects for other Na_V1.1 FHM mutants. Here we show that Na_V1.1-L1649Q is nonfunctional because of folding defects that are rescuable by incubation at lower temperatures or coexpression of interacting proteins, and that a partial rescue is sufficient for inducing an overall gain of function because of the modifications in gating properties. Strikingly, when expressed in neurons, the mutant was partially rescued and was a constitutive gain of function. A computational model showed that 35% rescue can be sufficient for inducing gain of function. Interestingly, previously described folding-defective epileptogenic Na_V1.1 mutants show loss of function also when rescued. Our results are consistent with gain of function as the functional effect of Na_V1.1 FHM mutations and hyperexcitability of GABAergic neurons as the pathomechanism of FHM type 3.Epilepsy and migraine are common neurologic disorders that may have pathophysiological links (1–3). Mutations have been identified for some rare types of epilepsy and migraine (1, 4–6), opening a window for investigating their pathogenic mechanisms, which may provide useful information also about more common forms. The Na⁺ channel α subunit Na_V1.1, encoded by the SCN1A gene, is the target of hundreds of epileptogenic mutations (7–9), and of mutations causing familial hemiplegic migraine type 3 (FHM-3), a rare subtype of migraine with aura characterized by hemiplegia during the attacks, which can also be caused by mutations of Ca_V2.1 Ca²⁺ channels and the α2 subunit of the Na⁺/K⁺ ATPase (FHM types 1 and 2) (1, 6). The results of most studies suggest that epileptogenic Na_V1.1 mutations cause variable degrees of loss of function of Na_V1.1, leading to reduced Na⁺ current and excitability in GABAergic neurons, and resulting in decreased inhibition in neuronal networks (10–14). The most severe phenotypes (e.g., Dravet syndrome, an extremely severe epileptic encephalopathy) are in general caused by mutations that induce complete Na_V1.1 loss of function, leading to haploinsufficiency (15). Thus, it has been hypothesized that a more severe loss of function would cause more severe epilepsy (8). Functional studies of Na_V1.1 FHM mutations have generated more confusing results (1). For instance, we have reported gain-of-function effects for the mutant Q1489K causing pure FHM (16), and modulable gain-/loss-of-function effects for the mutant T1174S associated with FHM or mild epilepsy in different branches of the family (17). Overall, our results are consistent with a gain of function of Na_V1.1 as the cause of FHM, which might induce cortical spreading depression (CSD), a probable pathomechanism of migraine, because of hyperexcitability of GABAergic interneurons (16). However, a study has reported loss of function for FHM hNa_V1.1 mutants expressed in the human cell line tsA-201—in particular, complete loss of function for the L1649Q mutant because of lack of cell surface expression (18). L1649Q has been identified in a four-generation family with eight members presenting with FHM, without epilepsy or other neurologic symptoms (19); this is a puzzling result more consistent with a phenotype of severe epilepsy (7, 8). We have found that Na_V1.1 epileptogenic mutations can induce loss of function by causing folding defects (20), which can be partially rescued by incubation of the transfected cells at lower temperatures (≤30 °C) or by molecular interactions (21, 22), as recently confirmed also for other epileptogenic Na_V1.1 mutants (23, 24). We report here that L1649Q is a folding-defective mutant that, when partially rescued, is characterized by an overall gain of function, consistent with our hypothesis of FHM type 3 pathomechanism (16).     

Effect of different frequencies of music on blood pressure regulation in spontaneously hypertensive rats

The effect of different frequencies of music on brain function was investigated through measurement of blood pressure in spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR). Previous studies indicated that exposure to Mozart's music (K. 205) leads to increased calcium/calmodulin-dependent dopamine synthesis in the brain, and that the subsequent increase in dopamine reduces blood pressure via D(2) receptors. The present study demonstrated that the blood pressure-reducing response was dependent on the frequency, and was markedly greater at 4 k-16 kHz compared with lower frequencies. These findings suggest that music containing high-frequency sounds stimulates dopamine synthesis, and might thereby regulate and/or affect various brain functions.     

二甲双胍调节糖尿病大鼠心房小电导钙激活钾通道亚型蛋白表达的信号通路

目的探讨蛋白激酶A(PKA)/钙调蛋白Ⅱ(CaMKⅡ)信号通路在二甲双胍(Met)调节2型糖尿病(T2DM)大鼠心房小电导钙激活钾通道亚型KCa2.2和KCa2.3蛋白表达中的作用。方法健康雄性Wistar大鼠40只,随机选8只喂普通饲料为对照组(Con组),另32只喂高脂高糖饲料联合腹腔注射小剂量链脲佐菌素构建T2DM大鼠模型后,再随机分为DM组、Met组、H-89组(腹腔注射PKA抑制剂H-89)和KN-93组(腹腔注射CaMKⅡ抑制剂KN-93),每组8只。用ELISA检测大鼠心房组织PKA活性,qRT-PCR检测CaMKⅡmRNA表达,Western blot和免疫组织化学检测KCa2.2、KCa2.3和磷酸化CaMKⅡ(p-CaMKⅡ)蛋白表达。结果 Con组、DM组、Met组和H-89组PKA活性分别为0.74±0.04、0.50±0.05、0.69±0.03和0.48±0.03。与DM组比较,Met组PKA活性明显提升(P<0.01);与Met组比较,H-89组显著抑制PKA活性(P<0.01)。Con组、DM组及Met组CaMKⅡmRNA分别为1.00±0.07、0.61±0.03和0.92±0.09。与Con组比较,DM组CaMKⅡmRNA表达明显降低(P<0.01);与DM组比较,Met组CaMKⅡmRNA表达明显增加(P<0.01)。与Con组比较,DM组心房组织p-CaMKⅡ和KCa2.2蛋白表达均明显降低,KCa2.3蛋白表达明显升高(P<0.01)。与DM组比较,Met组明显提升p-CaMKⅡ和KCa2.2蛋白表达,明显抑制KCa2.3蛋白表达(P<0.01)。与Met组比较,KN-93组和H-89组分别显著抑制p-CaMKⅡ蛋白表达和PKA活性,均显著下调KCa2.2蛋白表达,上调KCa2.3蛋白表达(P<0.01)。免疫组织化学染色显示,与Met组比较,KN-93组和H-89组均显著下调KCa2.2蛋白表达,上调KCa2.3蛋白表达(P<0.05,P<0.01),与Western blot检测结果一致。结论 Met通过激活PKA/CaMKⅡ信号通路部分修复T2DM大鼠心房KCa2.2蛋白下调和KCa2.3蛋白上调。     

Protein kinases modulate the sensitivity of hippocampal neurons to nitric oxide toxicity and anoxia

Multiple processes lead to neuronal death after ischemia, but the generation of nitric oxide (NO) is a key component in this cascade of events. The mechanisms that regulate the extent of neuronal degeneration during anoxia and NO toxicity are multifactorial. Neuronal death may be modulated by the activity of signal transduction systems that influence the toxicity of NO or its metabolic products such as cGMP. The enzyme responsible for the production of NO, nitric oxide synthase (NOS), is phosphorylated by protein kinase C (PKC), the cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA), and the calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaM-II). We examined in primary cultured hippocampal neurons whether the protein kinases PKC, PKA, CaM-II, and cGMP-dependent protein kinase modified the toxic effects of anoxia and NO. Down-regulation of PKC activity with PMA (1μM) increased hippocampal neuronal survival during anoxia and NO exposure from approximately 22% to 88%. Inhibitors of PKC activity 9H-7, H-8, sphingosine, and staurosporine also were neuroprotective. Down-regulation of PKC activity increased survival during anoxia even in the presence of the NOS inhibitor, N^ω-methyl-L-arginine. Thus, although down-regulation of PKC activity may increase neuronal survival by decreasing NOS activity, it also is likely that PKC contributes to ischemic neuronal death by mechanisms that are independent of NOS. Inhibition of the cGMP-dependent protein kinase activity, but not the activity of the CaM-II also was neuroprotective during NO administration. In contrast to the protective effects of inhibition of PKC and the cGMP-dependent protein kinase, activation rather than inhibition of PKA increased hippocampal neuronal survival during NO exposure. These results indicate that neuronal survival during anoxia and NO exposure is linked to the modulation of PKC, PKA, and cGMP-dependent protein kinase activity but is not dependent on the CaM-II pathway. Understanding the involvement of PKC, PKA, and the cGMP-dependent protein kinase in modulating the effect of neuronal death during ischemia and NO toxicity may help in directing future therapeutic modalities for cerebrovascular disease. © 1993 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

钙调素抗体的制备和鉴定

将从猪脑中所得SDS—PAGE纯的钙调素进行化学修饰,得(DNPm—CaM)n—BSA。将此修饰物免疫California白兔得抗血清。钙调素的ELISA测定表明:抗血清与天然牛脑和天然猪脑钙调素、CaBP_(72)(钙结合蛋白,分子量72KDa)、CaN(神经钙蛋白)、TnI(肌钙蛋白抑制亚单位)的交叉反应率分别为100％、100％、0.7％、0.4％、0.02％;与CaBP_(11)、CaBP_(12)、TnT、TnC、S—100、MLC(肌球蛋白轻链)均无交叉反应。免疫转移鉴定技术示:大鼠脑匀浆上清液显示强弱两条区带,强染色带相当于钙调素的位置,弱显色带分子量小于钙调素;其它所测大鼠组织匀浆上清液只在钙调素位置显示单一区带。     

Pentylenetetrazole-induced bursting activity and cellular protein phosphorylation in snail neurons

To elucidate the intracellular mechanism of seizure discharge, phosphorylation of cellular protein during pentylenetetrazole (PTZ)-induced bursting activity in snail neurons was investigated. PTZ markedly enhanced the phosphorylation of proteins of 34,000 and 50,000 molecular weight. Similar effects were observed by application of a calcium ionophore, A23187. Calmodulin antagonist, N-(6-aminohexyl)-5-chloronaphthalenesulfonamide hydrochloride (W-7), inhibited the PTZ-induced increased phosphorylation of these two proteins. Dibutyryl cyclic AMP and iosobutylmethylxanthine (IBMX) showed no significant effect on the phosphorylation pattern. Bath application of the calcium ionophore produced bursting activity followed by long-lasting hyperpolarization. Bath application of W-7 completely inhibited the PTZ-induced bursting activity. These results suggest that the phosphorylation of proteins of 34,000 and 50,000 in molecular weight is related to the generation of bursting activity by PTZ.     

镉对人体外周血淋巴细胞内游离Ca~(2+)及钙调素影响的研究

采用体外实验方法，观察CdCl2对培养24h的人外周血淋巴细胞内游离Ga2+浓度及CaM活性的影响。结果表明：细胞内游离Ca2+浓度与镉浓度（≤100μmol／L）及染毒时间（≤60min）存在明显的剂量及时相相关，在≤50μmol／LCdCl2作用下，CaM活性随染毒剂量增加而升高，50μmol／LCdCl2使CaM活性增至0μmol／L组的190．22％（P＜0．05），但100μmol／LCaCl2则对CaM无激活作用。在一定镉浓度（0～50μmol／LCdCl2）及染毒时间（0～40min）内，细胞内游离Ca2+浓度与CaM活性呈*一致性变化，提示镉的免疫毒作用机制与Ca2+、CaM系统有关。     

白芍总甙对大鼠腹腔巨噬细胞产生肿瘤坏死因子的调节机制

目的：研究不同浓度白芍总甙（ＴＧＰ）调节大鼠腹腔巨噬细胞（ＭΦ）产生肿瘤坏死因子（ＴＮＦ）作用。方法：在ＭΦ培养系统中有或无环氧酶抑制剂和钙调蛋白抑制剂等工具药，测定４５Ｃａ内流、ＰＧＥ２和ＴＮＦ含量。结果：ＴＧＰ（０．５～１０ｍｇ·Ｌ－１）明显促进ＬＰＳ诱导ＭΦ的４５Ｃａ内流和ＴＮＦ产生。线性回归分析表明，４５Ｃａ内流和ＴＮＦ产生呈明显正相关。三氟拉嗪（４０μｍｏｌ·Ｌ－１）可阻断ＴＧＰ促进ＬＰＳ诱导ＭΦ产生ＴＮＦ。ＴＧＰ－ＬＰＳ的ＴＮＦ释放曲线呈钟罩形，而ＴＧＰ－ＬＰＳ的ＰＧＥ２产生曲线呈浓度依赖性升高。当ＴＧＰ在低浓度（０．５～１２．５ｍｇ·Ｌ－１）时，ＴＮＦ与ＰＧＥ２产生明显正相关，而高浓度（１２．５～２５０ｍｇ·Ｌ－１）两者呈明显负相关。吲哚美辛（１０μｍｏｌ·Ｌ－１）可使ＴＮＦ量效曲线下降支消失，而Ｎω亚硝基－Ｌ－精氨酸（１５μｍｏｌ·Ｌ－１）对此无明显影响。结论：低浓度ＴＧＰ对ＴＮＦ产生上调作用可能与促进４５Ｃａ内流，提高钙调蛋白活性从而促进ＰＧＥ２分泌等有关，而高浓度下调作用是可能与ＭΦ自身产生大量ＰＧＥ２介导有关。     

Ⅱ型糖尿病患者血清钙调素活性的变化

目的探讨２型糖尿病（ＤＭ２）患者血清钙调素（ＣａＭ）活性的变化及其对治疗的反应。方法ＤＭ２患者２６例，行口服降糖药治疗８ｗｋ，采用依赖于Ｃａ２＋的磷酸二酯酶分析法测定治疗前后患者血清ＣａＭ的活性，并设立正常对照组２０例。结果与正常对照组相比，ＤＭ２患者血清ＣａＭ活性明显降低（分别为６３１．６０±１０４．３２μｇ·Ｌ－１和３９９．８１±６８．４１μｇ·Ｌ－１，Ｐ＜０．００１）；口服降糖药治疗可使患者血清ＣａＭ活性明显回升（４９６．６９±５７．９４μｇ·Ｌ－１），但仍未能恢复正常（与正常对照组相比，Ｐ＜０．００１）。结论ＤＭ２患者存在着明显的Ｃａ２＋－ＣａＭ系统的功能异常，此可能与糖尿病的发生机制有关。