Treatment Recommendations Following 3-Day Masked Continuous Glucose Monitoring (CGM) in Youth With Type 1 Diabetes

Glycemic control remains suboptimal in youth with type 1 diabetes. Retrospective continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) has demonstrated utility in fine-tuning diabetes management by detecting postprandial hyperglycemia and hypoglycemia. In this study, we explored the process of 3-day masked CGM use, subsequent treatment recommendations, and impact on A1c in a clinic-based sample of youth with type 1 diabetes. Over 2 years, 122 youth were referred for masked CGM. Patients/families completed a diary of blood glucose levels, insulin doses, food intake, and exercise during CGM use. A1c was assessed pre- and 2-3 months post-CGM. Treatment recommendations were formulated using data from CGM reports and diaries. Mean age was 14.3 ± 3.9 years, diabetes duration was 7.5 ± 4.7 years, and A1c was 8.5 ± 1.1% (69 ± 12 mmol/mol); 61% were pump-treated. Patients received an average of 3.1 ± 1.1 treatment recommendations following review of the CGM report. Most (80%) received reinforcement of the importance of preprandial bolusing; 37% received a recommendation regarding advanced insulin management (use of combination boluses/attend to active insulin). Receipt of the latter recommendation was related to A1c improvement ≥0.5% (OR: 4.0, P < .001). Masked CGM offers opportunities to guide advanced insulin management (by injection or pump), which may yield A1c improvements in youth with type 1 diabetes.     

Can Integrated Technology Improve Self-Care Behavior in Youth With Type 1 Diabetes? A Randomized Crossover Trial of Automated Pump Function

Automated blood glucose (BG) and insulin pump systems allow wireless transmission of all BG readings to a user’s pump. This study aimed to assess whether use of such a system, as compared with a manual BG entry insulin pump, resulted in higher mean daily frequency of BGs recorded after 6 months. A 12-month randomized crossover trial, comprising 2 phases, was conducted. All participants used insulin pump devices with automated vs manual BG entry for 6 months each; order of system use was randomly assigned. Device interactions were assessed from pump and glucometer downloads. Thirty-five participants were enrolled; 9 withdrew during the study. Use of the automated insulin pump system resulted in higher mean daily BG recorded over 6 months of use when compared to a manual BG entry system (5.8 ± 1.7 vs 5.0 ± 1.9; P = .02 [95% confidence interval, 0.14 to 1.58]). Bolus frequency was similar between groups. No HbA1c difference was observed between groups at 6 months (8.0% [64 mmol/l] ± 1.3 automated vs 7.7% [61 mmol/l] ± 0.9 manual; P = .38). Post hoc analysis demonstrated improved ΔHbA1c with automated system use in an adolescent subgroup with suboptimal baseline BG frequency (–0.9% vs + 0.5%; P = .003). Use of an automated glucometer/insulin pump resulted in higher number of BGs recorded over 6 months when compared to an insulin pump with manual BG entry. This may be especially beneficial for adolescent manual system users who enter <5 BGs per day into their pump.     

Design,Development, and Evaluation of a Novel Microneedle Array-based Continuous Glucose Monitor

The development of accurate, minimally invasive continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) devices has been the subject of much work by several groups, as it is believed that a less invasive and more user-friendly device will result in greater adoption of CGM by persons with insulin-dependent diabetes. This article presents the results of preliminary clinical studies in subjects with diabetes of a novel prototype microneedle-based continuous glucose monitor. In this device, an array of tiny hollow microneedles is applied into the epidermis from where glucose in interstitial fluid (ISF) is transported via passive diffusion to an amperometric glucose sensor external to the body. Comparison of 1396 paired device glucose measurements and fingerstick blood glucose readings for up to 72-hour wear in 10 diabetic subjects shows the device to be accurate and well tolerated by the subjects. Overall mean absolute relative difference (MARD) is 15% with 98.4% of paired points in the A+B region of the Clarke error grid. The prototype device has demonstrated clinically accurate glucose readings over 72 hours, the first time a microneedle-based device has achieved such performance.     

Design and Implementation of a Web-Based Reporting and Benchmarking Center for Inpatient Glucometrics

Background:Insulin is a top source of adverse drug events in the hospital, and glycemic control is a focus of improvement efforts across the country. Yet, the majority of hospitals have no data to gauge their performance on glycemic control, hypoglycemia rates, or hypoglycemic management. Current tools to outsource glucometrics reports are limited in availability or function.Methods:Society of Hospital Medicine (SHM) faculty designed and implemented a web-based data and reporting center that calculates glucometrics on blood glucose data files securely uploaded by users. Unit labels, care type (critical care, non–critical care), and unit type (eg, medical, surgical, mixed, pediatrics) are defined on upload allowing for robust, flexible reporting. Reports for any date range, care type, unit type, or any combination of units are available on demand for review or downloading into a variety of file formats. Four reports with supporting graphics depict glycemic control, hypoglycemia, and hypoglycemia management by patient day or patient stay. Benchmarking and performance ranking reports are generated periodically for all hospitals in the database.Results:In all, 76 hospitals have uploaded at least 12 months of data for non–critical care areas and 67 sites have uploaded critical care data. Critical care benchmarking reveals wide variability in performance. Some hospitals achieve top quartile performance in both glycemic control and hypoglycemia parameters.Conclusions:This new web-based glucometrics data and reporting tool allows hospitals to track their performance with a flexible reporting system, and provides them with external benchmarking. Tools like this help to establish standardized glucometrics and performance standards.     

A Study of Patient Experience Using a Blood Glucose Meter With an In-Built Insulin Dose Calculator

Background:Accurate calculation and adjustment of insulin doses is integral to maintaining glycemic control in insulin treated patients. Difficulties with insulin dose calculations may lead to poor adherence to blood glucose monitoring and insulin treatment regimes, resulting in poor metabolic control. The main objective of this study was to evaluate ease of use and user preference of a high specification touch screen blood glucose meter, which has an in-built insulin calculator, compared to patients’ usual method of testing blood glucose and deciding insulin doses.Methods:Patients with diabetes on a multiple daily injection insulin regime used the Test Meter without the insulin calculator and 1 of 3 comparator meters, each for a 7-day period. They then used the Test Meter with the in-built calculator for 10 days. Patients completed an ease of use questionnaire after each 7-day period, a preference questionnaire after the second 7-day period, and a questionnaire comparing the Test Meter with their usual method after the final 10-day period.Results:Of 164 patients who completed the study, 76% stated a preference for the Test Meter as a diabetes management tool compared to their usual method. A small number of patients preferred familiar methods and/or calculating insulin doses themselves. The log book function of meters was important to most patients.Conclusions:The Test Meter system with in-built insulin calculator supports people to better manage their diabetes and increases their confidence. Patients have different needs and preferences which should be acknowledged and supported in a patient centered health service.     

Differences in Glycemic Variability Between Normoglycemic and Prediabetic Subjects

So far the criteria for NGT and abnormal glucose tolerance (AGT) are based on HbA1c and 75 g oGTT. We present data on GV and diurnal profiles in stratified cohorts with AGT versus controls. 28 NGT, 42 AGT (15 IGT, 11 IFG, 16 CGI) matched for age and BMI classified by 75 g oGTT underwent a CGM with test meal (TM). Diurnal profiles, glucose excursion after TM, and GV (SD, MAGE) were calculated for day 2 and 3. HbA1c, with its values of 5.5 ± 0.37% versus 5.65 ± 0.36%, was within normal range. Average interstitial glucose (AiG) was 5.84 ± 0.52 mmol/l) in NGT and 6.35 ± 0.65 mmol/l in AGT (P = .002). The 2 h incremental area under curve (iAUC) from TM until 2 h after TM was 1.94 ± 1.31 mmol/l*h versus 2.89 ( ± 1.75) mmol/l*h (P = .012), AiG 2 hours after TM was 5.99 ± 1.14 mmol/l*d versus 6.64 ± 1.30 mmol/l (P = .035). Peaks of AiG after TM were 7.69 ± 1.48 mmol/l*d versus 9.18 ± 1.67 mmol/l*d (P = .001). SD was significantly higher for AGT (1.12 ± 0.37 vs. 0.85 ± 0.32 mmol/l, P = .01) and MAGE 2.26 ± 0.84 vs. 1.60 ± 0.69 mmol/l, P = .005). In this comparative analysis NGT and AGT well matched for age, BMI, and comorbidities, CGM revealed significant differences in daytime AiG, pp glucose excursion and postprandial peaks. SD and MAGE was significantly higher for subjects with AGT. I Impaired glucose homeostasis a better characterizes degree of AGTe than HbA1c and 75 g OGTT.     

国家标准化代谢性疾病管理中心应用于糖尿病患者管理的效果研究

背景　我国糖尿病的发病率迅猛发展且呈年轻化趋势,糖尿病及其并发症降低了患者生活质量,给家庭和社会带来了巨大的经济负担,科学的管理方式是预防和控制并发症发生、发展的关键环节。近年来提出的国家标准化代谢性疾病管理中心（MMC）是全新的管理模式,使糖尿病患者得到了有效管理。目的　探讨MMC在糖尿病患者管理中的应用效果。方法　本研究采用方便取样的方法,选择2017年7月-2019年1月在大连医科大学附属第一医院内分泌科住院的140糖尿病患者为研究对象。随机分为对照组（n=70）和试验组（n=70）。对照组接受常规入院全面评估和常规出院个性化指导。试验组在对照组的基础上出院后即进入MMC进行随访管理。在干预前和干预1年后采用糖尿病自我管理行为（SDSCA）量表对患者自我管理能力进行评价;在干预前和干预后6个月、1年分别检测空腹血糖（FPG）和餐后2 h血糖（2 hPG）、糖化血红蛋白（HbA1c）和血脂指标〔三酰甘油（TG）、总胆固醇（TC）、高密度脂蛋白胆固醇（HDL-C）、低密度脂蛋白胆固醇（LDL-C）〕。结果　本研究纳入的140例糖尿病患者中途失访9例,最终纳入试验组66例、对照组65例。干预1年后,对照组饮食、运动、血糖监测、足部护理、药物依从性及SCSCA量表总分低于试验组（P<0.05）。时间因素、干预方式因素在FPG、2 hPG、HbA1c上主效应显著（P<0.05）,时间因素、干预方式因素在FPG、2 hPG、HbA1c上存在交互作用（P<0.05）。干预1年后,试验组TG、LDL-C低于对照组（P<0.05）;干预1年后,两组TC和HDL-C比较,差异无统计学意义（P>0.05）。结论　MMC管理模式提高了糖尿病患者的自我管理能力,能够降低患者的FPG、2 hPG和HbA1c,改善患者TG、LDL-C水平。     

人体测量学指标和三酰甘油葡萄糖乘积指数对代谢综合征的诊断价值比较

背景　代谢综合征（MS）与冠心病、糖尿病等慢性病密切相关,其患病率逐年升高,但目前诊断标准不统一,诊断条件复杂,基层医务人员操作困难。目的　比较中国人群中人体测量学指标〔腰高比（WHtR）、腰臀比（WHR）、腰围（WC）、体质指数（BMI）〕及三酰甘油葡萄糖乘积（TyG）指数、TyG指数与BMI的乘积（TyG-BMI）、TyG指数与WC的乘积（TyG-WC）与MS相关性的差异及其对MS的诊断价值,确定MS的简易筛查指标。方法　选取北京市通州区觅子店社区2 972例参加健康体检人员,分别进行问卷调查、体格检查及实验室检查,计算WHtR、WHR、BMI及TyG指数、TyG-BMI、TyG-WC。依据中华医学会糖尿病学分会（CDS）诊断标准确定MS患者。采用SPSS 18.0统计软件绘制上述各项指标诊断MS的受试者工作特征（ROC）曲线,计算曲线下面积（AUC）,并采用MedCalc 16.8软件进行AUC比较。结果　男性和女性的MS患病率无统计学差异〔206/1 044比368/1 928,P>0.05〕。同性别MS患者的WHtR、WHR、WC、BMI、TyG指数、TyG-BMI、TyG-WC均高于非MS者（P<0.05）。BMI、WHtR、WHR、WC诊断男性MS的AUC分别为0.81、0.77、0.68、0.77,诊断女性MS的AUC分别为0.78、0.76、0.66、0.76,BMI诊断男性MS和女性MS的AUC均高于其他3项指标（P<0.05）。BMI诊断男性和女性MS的切点分别为25.00、25.30 kg/m2。TyG指数、TyG-BMI、TyG-WC诊断男性MS的AUC分别为0.88、0.89、0.88,诊断女性MS的AUC分别为0.88、0.88、0.87,TyG指数诊断男性MS和女性MS的AUC与其他2项指标比较无统计学差异（P>0.05）。TyG指数诊断男性和女性MS的切点分别为8.87、8.80。TyG指数诊断男性MS和女性MS的AUC高于BMI（P<0.05）。结论　人体测量学指标、TyG指数及其相关指数与MS均明显相关。BMI同MS的相关性优于其他人体测量学指标,可用于MS的大规模人群初步筛查;TyG指数的诊断价值优于BMI,可作为基层医务人员判断MS风险的简易指标。     

盐酸小檗碱对初发2型糖尿病患者降糖疗效及肠道菌群的影响

目的 观察盐酸小檗碱对初发2型糖尿病患者血糖、胰岛素抵抗、胰高血糖素样肽-1（glucagon-like peptide-1, GLP-1）以及肠道菌群影响。方法 选取50例初发2型糖尿病患者,随机、双盲分为小檗碱组25例和对照组25例,于0、12周检测空腹血糖（fasting blood glucose, FBG）、糖化血红蛋白（glycated hemoglobin A1c, HbA1c）、空腹胰岛素（fasting insulin, FINS）、胰岛素抵抗指数（homeostasis model assessment-Insulin resistance, HOMA-IR）、GLP-1以及肠道菌群变化。结果 两组干预前后对比,FBG、HbA1c、FINS、HOMA-IR下降,GLP-1升高,差异有统计学意义（P＜0.05）;干预后小檗碱组与对照组相比,FBG、HbA1c、HOMA-IR下降、GLP-1升高（P＜0.05）;肠道双歧杆菌、乳酸杆菌升高,肠球菌下降（P＜0.05）;拟杆菌、肠杆菌下降,差异有统计学意义（P＜0.01）;双歧杆菌、乳酸杆菌与FBG水平呈负相关,肠杆菌与FBG水平呈正相关,差异有统计学意义（P＜0.05）。结论 盐酸小檗碱对初发2型糖尿病患者降糖疗效较好并能够有效改善肠道菌群紊乱     

Relationship and factors responsible for regulating fasting and post‐challenge plasma glucose levels in the early stage development of type 2 diabetes mellitus

Aims/Introduction

Elevation of 2-h plasma glucose (2-h PG) levels keeps step with fasting plasma glucose (FPG) levels elevation, but some individuals show dominant elevation of 2-h PG and others FPG. We analyzed dependent and independent relationships between 2-h PG and FPG, and investigated the factors regulating 2-h PG and FPG.

Materials and Methods

In 1,657 Japanese participants who underwent a 75-g oral glucose tolerance test at the initial examination for a medical check-up, we carried out simple linear regression analysis between 2-h PG and FPG levels on the three patterns of independent variables. We divided the participants into two subgroups: the 2-h PG-side group and the FPG-side from the regression line, and examined the relationships between 2-h PG-FPG and factors responsible for elevation of plasma glucose levels.

Results

There was a significant positive correlation between 2-h PG and FPG levels. The regression line of both 2-h PG and FPG as independent variables was in accordance with the regression line of 2-h PG as an independent variable and FPG as a dependent variable. In 2-h PG-side group, age was the independent factor affecting 2-h PG in addition to insulinogenic index and insulin sensitivity index (ISI composite). In the FPG-side group, triglyceride was the independent factor affecting FPG in addition to insulinogenic index and ISI composite.

Conclusions

Two-hour PG was an independent predictor of FPG. In addition to the importance of decreased insulin secretion and insulin sensitivity, age was the strong factor to elevate 2-h PG levels in the 2-h PG-side group and triglyceride was the strong factor to elevate FPG levels in the FPG-side group in the early stage of development of type 2 diabetes.