Delivery systems for small molecule drugs, proteins, and DNA: the neuroscience/biomaterial interface

Manipulation of cellular processes in vivo by the delivery of drugs, proteins or DNA is of paramount importance to neuroscience research. Methods for the presentation of these molecules vary widely, including direct injection (either systemic or stereotactic), osmotic pump-mediated chronic delivery, or even implantation of cells engineered to indefinitely secrete a factor of interest. Biomaterial-based delivery systems represent an alternative to more traditional approaches, with the possibility of increased efficacy. Drug-releasing biomaterials, either as injectable microspheres or as three-dimensional implants, can deliver a molecule of interest (including small molecule drugs, biologically active proteins, or DNA) over a more prolonged period of time than by standard bolus injection, avoiding the need for repeated administration. Furthermore, sustained-release systems can maintain therapeutic concentrations at a target site, thus reducing the chance for toxicity. This review summarizes applications of polymer-based delivery of small molecule drugs, proteins, and DNA specifically relevant to neuroscience research. We detail the fabrication procedures for the polymeric systems and their utility in various experimental models. The biomaterial field offers unique experimental tools with downstream clinical application for the study and treatment of neurologic disease.     

Biodegradable amphiphilic polymer–drug conjugate micelles

The coupling of drugs to macromolecular carriers received an important impetus from Ringsdorf's notion of polymer–drug conjugates. Several water-soluble polymers, poly(ethylene glycol), poly[N-(2-hydroxypropyl) methacrylamide], poly(l-glutamic acid) and dextran, are studied intensively and have been utilized successfully in clinical research. The promising results arising from clinical trials with polymer–drug conjugates (e.g., paclitaxel, doxorubicin, camptothecins) have provided a firm foundation for other synthetic polymers, especially biodegradable polymers, used as drug delivery vehicles. This review discusses biodegradable polymeric micelles as an alternative drug–conjugate system. Particular focus is on A-B or B-A-B type biodegradable amphiphilic block copolymer such as polylactide, morpholine-2,5-dione derivatives and cyclic carbonates, which can form a core–shell micellar structure, with the hydrophobic drug-binding segment forming the hydrophobic core and the hydrophilic segment as a hydrated outer shell. Polymeric micelles can be designed to avoid uptake by cells of reticuloendothelial system and thus enhance their blood lifetime via the enhanced permeability and retention effect. Active tumor-targeting may be achieved by modifying the micelle surface with specific ligands. The potential application areas are discussed and future challenges are highlighted.     

Cholesterol-Enhanced Polylactide-Based Stereocomplex Micelle for Effective Delivery of Doxorubicin

Nanoscale micelles as an effective drug delivery system have attracted increasing interest in malignancy therapy. The present study reported the construction of the cholesterol-enhanced doxorubicin (DOX)-loaded poly(D-lactide)-based micelle (CDM/DOX), poly(L-lactide)-based micelle (CLM/DOX), and stereocomplex micelle (CSCM/DOX) from the equimolar enantiomeric 4-armed poly(ethylene glycol)–polylactide copolymers in aqueous condition. Compared with CDM/DOX and CLM/DOX, CSCM/DOX showed the smallest hydrodynamic size of 96 ± 4.8 nm and the slowest DOX release. The DOX-loaded micelles exhibited a weaker DOX fluorescence inside mouse renal carcinoma cells (i.e., RenCa cells) compared to free DOX·HCl, probably because of a slower DOX release. More importantly, all the DOX-loaded micelles, especially CSCM/DOX, exhibited the excellent antiproliferative efficacy that was equal to or even better than free DOX·HCl toward RenCa cells attributed to their successful internalization. Furthermore, all of the DOX-loaded micelles exhibited the satisfactory hemocompatibility compared to free DOX·HCl, indicating the great potential for systemic chemotherapy through intravenous injection.     

Synthesis of Star‐Comb Double Crystalline Diblock Copolymer of Poly(ε‐caprolactone)‐block‐poly(l‐lactide): Effect of Chain Topology on Crystallization Behavior

A series of highly branched star‐comb poly(ε‐caprolactone)‐block‐poly(l ‐lactide) (scPCL‐b‐PLLA) are successfully achieved using star‐shaped hydroxylated polybutadiene as the macroinitiator by a simple “grafting from” strategy. The ration of each segment can be controlled by the feed ratio of comonomers. These star‐comb double crystalline copolymers are well‐defined and expected to illustrate the influences of the polymer chain topology by comparing with their counterparts in linear‐shaped, star‐shaped, and linear‐comb shape. The crystallization behaviors of PCL‐b‐PLLA copolymers with different architectures are investigated systematically by means of wide‐angle X‐ray diffraction, differential scanning calorimetry, and polarized optical microscopy analysis. It is shown that the comb branched architectures promote the crystallization behavior of each constituent significantly. Both crystallinity and melting temperature greatly raise from linear to comb‐shaped copolymers. Compared to linear‐comb topology, the star‐comb shape presents some steric hindrance of the graft points, which decrease the crystallinity of scPCL‐b‐PLLA. Effects of copolymer composition and chain topology on the crystallization are studied and discussed.

     

Influence of Thermal Annealing on the Sinterability of Different Grades of Polylactide Microspheres Dedicated for Laser Sintering

We present a comparison of the influence of the conditioning temperature of microspheres made of medical grade poly(L-lactide) (PLLA) and polylactide with 4 wt % of D-lactide content (PLA) on the thermal and structural properties. The microspheres were fabricated using the solid-in-oil-in-water method for applications in additive manufacturing. The microspheres were annealed below the glass transition temperature (T_g), above T_g but below the onset of cold crystallization, and at two temperatures selected from the range of cold crystallization corresponding to the crystallization of the α’ and α form of poly(L-lactide), i.e., at 40, 70, 90, and 120 °C, in order to verify the influence of the conditioning temperature on the sinterability of the microspheres set as the sintering window (SW). Based on differential scanning calorimetry measurements, the SWs of the microspheres were evaluated with consideration of the existence of cold crystallization and reorganization of crystal polymorphs. The results indicated that the conditioning temperature influenced the availability and range of the SWs depending on the D-lactide presence. We postulate the need for an individual approach for polylactide powders in determining the SW as a temperature range free of any thermal events. We also characterized other core powder characteristics, such as the residual solvent content, morphology, particle size distribution, powder flowability, and thermal conductivity, as key properties for successful laser sintering. The microspheres were close to spheres, and the size of the microspheres was below 100 µm. The residual solvent content decreased with the increase of the annealing temperature. The thermal conductivities were 0.073 and 0.064 W/mK for PLA and PLLA microspheres, respectively, and this depended on the spherical shape of the microspheres. The wide angle X-ray diffraction (WAXD) studies proved that an increase in the conditioning temperature caused a slight increase in the crystallinity degree for PLLA microspheres and a clear increase in crystallization for the PLA microspheres.     

丝裂霉素C-聚乳酸凝胶兔气管外壁给药后体内释放量的测定

目的将丝裂霉素C(MMC)与聚乳酸(PLA)制成凝胶制剂固定在兔气管外壁给药,并建立超高效液相色谱-串联质谱法(UHPLC-MS/MS)测定兔体内释放丝裂霉素C的含量。方法新西兰大白兔30只,气管处外科手术形成瘢痕组织,将0.2 ml载有不同剂量(0.05、0.1、0.2、0.4和0.6mg)的聚乳酸凝胶与明胶海绵的混匀后置于损伤后的气管外壁,固定后缝合手术切口。兔血浆经乙酸乙酯提取后,采用UHPLC-MS/MS法测定MMC血浆药物浓度。结果兔血浆中丝裂霉素C的质量浓度在1～1 000μg·L-1范围内线性良好(r=0.9977,权重W:1/x2);血浆中丝裂霉素C的检出限(信噪比为3)为0.2μg·L-1;其平均回收率在85%～115%之间;日内及日间的相对标准偏差(RSDs)均小于15%,满足生物样品分析要求。兔气管外壁给药后,血浆中MMC释放量少,血药浓度极低,此为选择UHPLC-MS/MS的主要依据。结论该方法简便快捷、灵敏度高、重现性好,适用于丝裂霉素C的体内大批量样品定量分析及药代动力学等方面的研究。MMC-PLA凝胶局部用药后吸收量极少,说明此凝胶剂对全身影响不大。     

壳聚糖-聚乳酸及壳聚糖-聚(R)-3-羟基丁酸甲酯共混膜的制备及评价

用流延法制备壳聚糖与聚乳酸或聚(R)-3-羟基丁酸甲酯共混膜。壳聚糖-聚乳酸(1∶1,w/w)和壳聚糖-聚(R)-3-羟基丁酸甲酯(1∶1,w/w)共混膜的抗拉强度为(25.39±1.63)和(23.49±0.43)MPa,吸水率为(32.65±2.41)%和(33.72±3.11)%。该壳聚糖-聚乳酸膜在人工组织液中浸泡45 d后,降解率为(32.26±0.56)%,提示其可诱导新组织再生。     

A型肉毒类毒素聚乳酸微球制备及酶联免疫吸附测定方法

目的以A型肉毒类毒素为模型药,探讨聚乳酸用于包裹生物大分子的可能性。方法采用水-油-水复乳溶剂挥发法制备微球,并测定粒径和包封率,用间接酶联免疫吸附测定法检测免疫鼠血清中的抗体水平。结果获得了60%以上的包封率,微球粒径可控制在30～200μm,微球在体内缓慢释放诱导抗体产生。结论采用水-油-水复乳溶剂挥发法制备微球,成功地制备了A型肉毒类毒素免疫微球,可用于运载生物大分子。     

Biodegradable polylactide membranes for bone defect coverage: biocompatibility testing, radiological and histological evaluation in a sheep model

Large bony defects often show a delayed healing and have an increasing risk of infection. Several materials are used for the coverage of large defects. These materials must be biocompatible, easy to use, and must have an appropriate stability to present a mechanical hindrance. Aim of this study was to investigate two different biodegradable membranes for defect coverage in a sheep model. Round cranial defects (1.5 cm diameter) were created in sheep. Six different treatments were investigated: defects without membrane, defects covered with a poly(D,L-lactide) or with a 70/30 poly(L/D,L-lactide) membrane and all defects with or without spongiosa filling. The sheep were sacrificed 12 or 24 weeks postoperatively. Bone formation in the defects was quantified by computer-assisted measurements of the area of the residual defect on CT radiographs. Histomorphometry and host-tissue response were evaluated by light microscopy. The biocompatibility was investigated by analyzing the amount of osteoclasts and foreign body cells. Both membranes served as a mechanical hindrance to prevent the prolapse of soft tissue into the defect. The biocompatibility test revealed no differences in the amount and distribution of osteoclasts at the two investigated time points and between the investigated groups. No negative effect on the tissue regeneration was detectable between the investigated groups related to the type of membrane, but a foreign body reaction around the two membrane types was observed. In the membrane-covered defects, the spongiosa showed a progressing remodeling to the native bony structure of the cranium. The groups without spongiosa partly revealed new bone formation, without complete bridging in any group or at any time point. Comparing the 12 and 24 weeks groups, an increased bone formation was detectable at the later time point. In conclusion, the results of the present in vivo study reveal a good biocompatibility and prevention of soft tissue prolapse of the two used membranes without differences between the membranes. An enhanced remodeling of the spongiosa into native bony structures under the membranes was detectable, but no osteopromoting effect was observed due to the membranes.