Mechanism mediating HIV replication in infected individuals

A long asymptomatic period is one of the characteristics of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). How actively HIV replicates in vivo and what controls viral replication during this period remains to be clarified. Proviral DNA integrated into the cellular DNA of peripheral blood lymphocytes (PBL) is not completely silent, but the viral antigens in PBL are extremely low. Several mechanisms have been proposed to explain the low levels of viral replication: i) the regulatory genes encoded in HIV might control the expression of viral DNA, ii) the majority of the proviruses might be defective, iii) host immune systems such as T cell-mediated HIV-specific cytotoxicity and antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity might eliminate infected cells, and iv) CD8+ lymphocytes might suppress spontaneous viral replication in PBL.     

Humoral immune responses to T cell tropic retrovirus simian T lymphotropic virus type III in monkeys with experimentally induced acquired immune deficiency-like syndrome.

The T cell tropic retrovirus of macaque monkeys simian T lymphotropic virus type III (STLV-III) has morphologic, growth, and antigenic properties indicating that it is related to human T cell lymphotropic virus type III/lymphadenopathy-associated virus (HTLV-III/LAV), the etiologic agent of the acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) of humans. STLV-III has recently been shown to induce an AIDS-like disease in macaque monkeys. In this study the humoral immune responses of six experimentally infected monkeys have been characterized to determine whether certain parameters of the antibody response to the virus might be predictive of the clinical outcome of this infection. Two distinct patterns of antibody responses were found. Four animals that died within 160 d of inoculation developed low titer anti-STLV-III antibody responses that recognized only the viral envelope protein, and progressive declines in total plasma IgG levels and absolute peripheral blood T4 lymphocyte numbers. The two animals that lived longer (one died at 352 d, the other remains alive at 430 d) developed high titer anti-STLV-III antibody responses that recognized both viral envelope and core proteins, increases in total plasma IgG, and a later decrease in number of peripheral blood T4 lymphocytes. Interestingly, the single animal that has remained clinically healthy after infection was the only one to develop detectable STLV-III neutralizing antibodies.     

Location and distribution of difucoganglioside (VI3NeuAcV3III3Fuc2nLc6) in normal and tumor tissues defined by its monoclonal antibody FH6

The distribution of a novel difucoganglioside (6B ganglioside, NeuAc alpha 2----3Gal beta 1----4[Fuc alpha 1----3]GlcNAc beta 1----3Gal beta 1----4[Fuc alpha 1----3]GlcNAc beta 1----3Gal beta 1----4Glc beta 1----1Cer) in various normal adult and fetal tissues, as well as in cancer tissues, has been studied by immunoperoxidase staining with a specific monoclonal antibody, FH6, directed to this antigen. A large variety of embryonic and fetal tissues (stomach, colon, small intestine, pancreas, esophagus, lung, and heart) showed a diffuse, weakly positive staining, particularly in the epithelial layer, up to the 70th to 80th day of gestation. However, no staining was observed in various normal adult tissues, including gastrointestinal and glandular epithelial tissues which were stained positively by antibody N-19-9 (directed to sialyl-Lea) or CSLEXI (directed to sialyl-Lex). FH6-positive loci were limited to the proximal convoluted tubuli in kidney and granulocytes. In contrast, 44 of 76 cases of cancer tissue tested, including gastric, colonic, lung, breast, and renal cancers, showed clearly positive staining. The intensity of staining in gastric and colonic cancer tissues by FH6 antibody was weaker and less frequent, although the incidence of positive staining for lung (50%) and breast cancer (86%) was significantly higher than that of the antigen stained by monoclonal antibody FH4 (Y. Fukushi, S. Hakomori, and T. Shepard, J. Exp. Med., 159: 506-520, 1984), which is directed to the asialo core of the FH6 antigen. The antigen levels in the serum of patients with various cancers, inflammatory diseases, and normal subjects were determined by radioimmunoassay. The antigen level was found to be significantly higher in the serum of some patients with cancer, particularly lung, liver, and pancreatic cancers, as compared with the serum levels in other types of cancer, noncancerous diseases, and normal subjects.     

Immunoglobulin genes encoding antibodies directed to oncodevelopmental carbohydrate antigens

We investigated the immunoglobulin genes which encode the variable region of the monoclonal antibodies directed to the onco-developmental carbohydrate antigens such SSEA-1, fucosyl SSEA-1, SSEA-3 and SSEA-4. The VH region of these antibodies was preferentially encoded by the gene members of the X24, VH7183 and Q52 families, the families which are known to be located at the 3'-end region of the murine germ line VH gene. This result is interesting particularly when considering that the members of the 3'-end VH families are known to be preferentially expressed in embryonic B lymphocytes by an intrinsic genetic program. The comparative study of the nucleic acid sequences of mRNAs encoding these antibodies and the sequences of the corresponding germ line VH genes disclosed that the sequences encoding the antibodies contain no mutation from the germ line VH genes, or contain only a few somatic mutations, which are thought to be insignificant for the reactivity of the antibodies to the nominal antigens. These results imply that some of the embryonic B lymphocytes that express the unmutated germ line VH genes of the 3'-end families can be reactive with embryonic carbohydrate antigens, albeit rearranged with appropriate D-JH gene segments, and coupled with proper light chains. The VH region of the syngenic monoclonal anti-idiotypic antibodies directed to these anti-carbohydrate antibodies were also encoded preferentially by the members of the 3'-end VH families. We propose here that a part of the virgin embryonic B lymphocytes, which express the antibody encoded by the gene members of the 3'-end VH families at the cell surface, will be stimulated by the embryonic carbohydrate antigens which are abundantly present in the internal milieu of the embryo. The clonally expanded B lymphocytes, in turn, will facilitate the proliferation of other populations of embryonic B lymphocytes expressing the corresponding anti-idiotypic antibodies, which are also encoded by the gene members of the 3'-end VH families. This process will lead to the formation of the primitive immune idiotype network system directed to the embryonic carbohydrate auto-antigens in the embryo, which is rarely exposed to the external antigens.     

Tissue distribution of 2-3 and 2-6 sialyl Lewis A antigens and significance of the ratio of two antigens for the differential diagnosis of malignant and benign disorders of the digestive tract

The authors investigated the tissue distribution of two kinds of sialylated derivatives of Lewis A (Le(a)) antigen in patients with cancers of the digestive system using specific monoclonal antibodies, and evaluated the significance of determining the 2-3 and 2-6 sialylated Le(a) antigen levels for the diagnosis of cancer. In most specimens from patients with cancers of the pancreas, biliary tract, stomach, and colon, the 2-3 sialylated Le(a) antigen was strongly expressed in cancer cells. However, 2-6 sialylated Le(a) antigen was less frequently expressed in cancer cells. The former is therefore more specific to cancer than the latter. Also, the serum level of the 2-3 sialylated Le(a) antigen was significantly higher than that of the 2-6 counterpart in patients with cancers of pancreas, biliary tract, stomach, and colon. The resulting ratio of serum 2-3/2-6 sialylated Le(a) antigens was frequently high in patients with malignancy and was low in patients with benign disorders of these digestive organs. Therefore, the 2-3/2-6 sialylated Le(a) antigen ratio is a useful for the differential diagnosis of malignant disorders in these organs. However, liver disorders were found to be exceptional in that both antigens were mostly absent in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cells in immunohistologic examination, as well as in nonmalignant parenchymal liver cells. Only the epithelial cells of the intrahepatic bile ducts expressed the 2-6 sialylated Le(a) antigen strongly, and expressed the 2-3 sialylated Le(a) antigen moderately. The levels of both antigens were sometimes high in patients with liver disorders, but the ratio always remained low in patients with HCC as well as benign liver disorders such as cirrhosis or chronic hepatitis. The sialylated Le(a) antigens, which sometimes accumulate in the sera of patients with HCC, were concluded to originate from the epithelial cells of the proliferating small bile ducts, and those serum antigens cannot be considered as evidence for the presence of liver cancer cells.     

Hypoxic culture induces expression of sialin, a sialic acid transporter, and cancer-associated gangliosides containing non-human sialic acid on human cancer cells

Tumor hypoxia figures heavily in malignant progression by altering the intracellular glucose metabolism and inducing angiogenic factor production, thus, selecting and expanding more aggressive cancer cell clones. Little is known, however, regarding hypoxia-induced antigenic changes in cancers. We investigated the expression of N-glycolyl sialic acid (NeuGc)-G(M2), a cancer-associated ganglioside containing non-human sialic acid, NeuGc, in human cancers. Cancer tissues prepared from patients with colon cancers frequently expressed NeuGc-G(M2), whereas it was virtually absent in nonmalignant colonic epithelia. Studies on cultured cancer cells indicated that the non-human sialic acid was incorporated from culture medium. Hypoxic culture markedly induced mRNA for a sialic acid transporter, sialin, and this accompanied enhanced incorporation of NeuGc as well as N-acetyl sialic acid. Transfection of cells with sialin gene conferred accelerated sialic acid transport and induced cell surface expression of NeuGc-G(M2). We propose that the preferential expression of NeuGc-G(M2) in cancers is closely associated with tumor hypoxia. Hypoxic culture of tumor cells induces expression of the sialic acid transporter, and enhances the incorporation of non-human sialic acid from the external milieu. A consequence of this is the acquisition of cancer-associated cell surface gangliosides, typically G(M2), containing non-human sialic acid (NeuGc), which is not endogenously synthesized through CMP-N-acetyl sialic acid hydroxylase because humans lack the gene for the synthetic enzyme. As hypoxia is associated with diminished response to radiotherapy and chemotherapy, NeuGc-G(M2) is a potential therapeutic target for hypoxic cancer cells.     

Carbohydrate-mediated cell adhesion in cancer metastasis and angiogenesis

Malignant transformation is associated with abnormal glycosylation, resulting in the synthesis and expression of altered carbohydrate determinants including sialyl Lewis^a and sialyl Lewis^x. The sialyl Lewis^a and sialyl Lewis^x determinants appear in the sera of patients with cancer, and are extensively utilized for serum diagnosis of cancers in Japan. Sialyl Lewis^a and sialyl Lewis^x are involved in selectin-mediated adhesion of cancer cells to vascular endothelium, and these determinants are thought to be closely associated with hematogenous metastasis of cancers. Recent progress in this area includes the following: 1. Substantial increases in solid clinical statistics that further confirm the contribution of these determinants in the progression of a wide variety of cancers; 2. Elucidation of the ligand specificity of the three family members of selectins and evaluation of the roles of these molecules in cancer cell adhesion; and 3. Advances in the study of the mechanism that leads to the enhanced expression of the sialyl Lewis^a/x determinants in malignant cells. These recent results have confirmed that these determinants are not merely markers for cancers, but are functionally implicated in the malignant behavior of cancer cells. The results also suggested that the increase of these determinants in malignant cells is an inevitable consequence of the malignant transformation of cells. Considerable new knowledge has also been accumulated regarding the therapeutic implications for suppression of hematogenous metastasis targeting this cell adhesion system.