Morphology of the external genitalia of the adult male and female mice as an endpoint of sex differentiation

Adult external genitalia (ExG) are the endpoints of normal sex differentiation. Detailed morphometric analysis and comparison of adult mouse ExG has revealed 10 homologous features distinguishing the penis and clitoris that define masculine vs. feminine sex differentiation. These features have enabled the construction of a simple metric to evaluate various intersex conditions in mutant or hormonally manipulated mice. This review focuses on the morphology of the adult mouse penis and clitoris through detailed analysis of histologic sections, scanning electron microscopy, and three-dimensional reconstruction. We also present previous results from evaluation of "non-traditional" mammals, such as the spotted hyena and wallaby to demonstrate the complex process of sex differentiation that involves not only androgen-dependent processes, but also estrogen-dependent and hormone-independent mechanisms.     

Is the dopaminergic loss associated with gait and postural impairments in subjects with Parkinson's disease at different motor stages?

Gait and postural control deficiencies in Parkinson's disease (PD) involve several specific motor aspects. The aim of this study was to identify and compare the main changes in gait kinematics and postural control with dopaminergic loss in the striatum region. This is a cross‐sectional study that included 42 individuals with PD at different motor stages, according to the Hoehn & Yahr scale (H&Y). Motor subsection of the Movement Disorder Society‐Unified Parkinson Disease Rating Scale—part III (MDS‐UPDRS III) was used to evaluate general motor aspects. Gait kinematics was assessed using a three‐dimensional motion capture system. Postural control was assessed by stabilometry using force platforms. Dopamine depletion was verified through 99mTc‐TRODAT‐1 (SPECT‐CT) examination. We included 12, 15 and 15 individuals classified as H&Y I, II and III, respectively. We identified worse values of dopamine transporter uptake, MDS‐UPDRS III, gait parameters (velocity, step length and stride length) and center of pressure displacement as the disease progressed. Our results indicate that higher dopaminergic loss and gait and postural control deficits occur between the H&Y levels II and III.     

Neuromuscular electrical stimulation to improve gross motor function in children with cerebral palsy: a meta-analysis

ObjectiveTo systematically review the effectiveness of neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES) as an adjuvant therapy to improve gross motor function in children with spastic cerebral palsy.MethodsMEDLINE, EMBASE, Cochrane CENTRAL, PEDro and Scopus were searched. We included randomized controlled trials examining the effects of NMES combined with other therapies on gross motor function as assessed by the Gross Motor Function Measure (GMFM) and its functional dimensions. Two reviewers independently screened, extracted data, assessed the risk of bias (PEDro) and quality of the evidence (GRADE).ResultsSix randomized controlled trials (pooled n = 174) were included in the meta-analysis. NMES combined with other therapies presented medium effect size to improve gross motor function in children with cerebral palsy in comparison with conventional physical therapy or neurodevelopmental therapy. Our sensitivity analysis showed that NMES combined with other therapies was effective to improve GMFM-sitting and standing dimensions but not GMFM-walking dimension.ConclusionLow-quality evidence suggests that NMES may be used as adjuvant therapy to improve sitting and standing dimensions of GMFM in children with spastic cerebral palsy.     

Enriched environment effects on behavior, memory and BDNF in low and high exploratory mice

Environmental enrichment (EE) has been largely used to investigate behavioral modifications and neuroplasticity in the adult brain both in normal and pathological conditions. The interaction between individual behavioral traits with EE responsiveness has not been investigated within the same strain. By using two extremes of CF1 mice that differ by their exploratory behavior in the Open Field (OF) task (Kazlauckas V, 2005), denominated as Low (LE) and High (HE) Exploratory Mice, the present study evaluated if EE during adulthood could modify the putative differences between LE and HE mice on exploratory behavior, memory performance and hippocampal BDNF levels. To this end, we investigated the effect of adult LE and HE mice after 2 months of enriched or standard housing conditions on the open field, on novel object recognition, on the inhibitory avoidance task and on hippocampal BDNF immunocontent. LE showed low exploratory behavior, less retention in the inhibitory avoidance and lower hippocampal BDNF levels. EE enhanced exploratory behavior, memory performance and hippocampal BDNF levels both in LE and HE mice. Importantly, the general profile of LE mice submitted to EE was similar to HE mice housed in standard conditions. These results show that internalized behavior of LE mice can be significantly modified by exposure to an enriched environment even during adulthood. These observations may contribute to investigate biological mechanisms and therapeutical interventions for individuals with internalized psychiatric disorders.     

Effects of anxiolytics in zebrafish: similarities and differences between benzodiazepines, buspirone and ethanol

There is growing interest in zebrafish as a model organism in behavioral pharmacology research. Several anxiety behaviors have been characterized in zebrafish, but the effect of anxiolytic drugs on these parameters has been scarcely studied. The purpose of this work was to assess the predictive validity of acute treatment with anxiolytic drugs on behavioral parameters of anxiety. In the first task we simultaneously observed behavior of adult zebrafish on four parameters: height in the tank, locomotion, color, and shoal cohesion. The second task was the assessment of light/dark preference for 5 min. The benzodiazepines clonazepam, bromazepam, diazepam, and a moderate dose of ethanol significantly reduced shoal cohesion. Buspirone specifically increased zebrafish exploration of higher portions of the tank. In the light/dark task, all benzodiazepines, buspirone, and ethanol increased time spent in the light compartment. After treatment with anxiolytics, fish typically spent more than 60 s and rarely less than 40 s in the light compartment whereas controls (n = 45) spent 33.3 ± 14.4 s and always less than 60 s in the light compartment. Propranolol had no clear effects in these tasks. These results suggest that light/dark preference in zebrafish is a practical, low-cost, and sensitive screening task for anxiolytic drugs. Height in the tank and shoal cohesion seem to be useful behavioral parameters in discriminating different classes of these drugs.