SHIP represses mast cell activation and reveals that IgE alone triggers signaling pathways which enhance normal mast cell survival

The hemopoietic specific, Src homology 2-containing inositol 5' phosphatase (SHIP) hydrolyzes the phosphatidylinositol (PI)-3-kinase generated second messenger, PI-3,4,5-trisphosphate (PIP(3)), to PI-3,4-bisphosphate (PI-3,4-P(2)) in normal bone marrow derived mast cells (BMMCs). As a consequence, SHIP negatively regulates IgE+antigen (Ag)-induced degranulation as well as leukotriene and inflammatory cytokine production. Interestingly, in the absence of SHIP, BMMCs degranulate extensively with IgE alone, i.e. without Ag, suggesting that IgE alone is capable of stimulating signaling in normal BMMCs and that SHIP prevents this signaling from progressing to degranulation. To test this, we compared signaling events triggered by monomeric IgE versus IgE+Ag in normal BMMCs and found that multiple pathways are triggered by monomeric IgE alone and, while they are in general weaker than those stimulated by IgE+Ag, they are more prolonged. Moreover, while SHIP prevents this IgE-induced signalling from progressing to degranulation or leukotriene production it allows sufficient production of autocrine acting cytokines, in part by activation of NFkappaB, to enhance BMMC survival. Interestingly, the activation of NFkappaB and the level of cytokines produced are far higher with IgE than with IgE+Ag. Moreover, IgE alone maintains Bcl-X(L) levels and enhances the adhesion of BMMCs to fibronectin and this likely enhances their survival still further.     

Complex Serology and Immune Response of Mice to Variant High-Molecular-Weight O Polysaccharides Isolated from Pseudomonas aeruginosa Serogroup O2 Strains

The O antigen of the Pseudomonas aeruginosa lipopolysaccharide is the optimal target for protective antibodies, but the unusual and complex nature of their sugar substituents has made it difficult to define the range of these structures needed in an effective vaccine. Most clinical isolates of P. aeruginosa can be classified into 10 O-antigen serogroups, but slight chemical differences among O polysaccharides within a serogroup give rise to subtype epitopes. These epitopes could impact the reactivity of O-antigen-specific antibodies, as well as the susceptibility of a target strain to protective, opsonic antibodies. To define parameters of serogroup and subtype-epitope immunogenicity, antigenicity, and surface expression on P. aeruginosa cells, we prepared high-molecular-weight O-polysaccharide vaccines from strains of P. aeruginosa serogroup O2, for which eight structurally variant O antigens expressing six defined subtype epitopes (O2a to O2f) have been identified. A complex pattern of immune responses to these antigens was observed following vaccination of mice. The high-molecular-weight O polysaccharides were generally more immunogenic at low doses (1 and 10 μg) than at a high dose (50 μg) and usually elicited antibodies that opsonized the homologous strain for phagocytic killing. Some of the individual polysaccharides elicited cross-opsonic antibodies to a variable number of strains that express all of the defined serogroup O2 subtype epitopes. Combination into one vaccine of two antigens that individually elicited cross-reactive opsonic antibodies to most members of the O2 serogroup inhibited, instead of enhanced, the production of antibodies broadly reactive with most serogroup O2 subtype strains. Thus, immune responses to P. aeruginosa O antigens may be restricted to a limited range of epitopes on structurally complex O antigens, and combining multiple related antigens into a single vaccine formulation may inhibit the production of those antibodies best able to protect against most P. aeruginosa strains within a given O-antigen serogroup.It has been established through animal and human experimentation that the lipopolysaccharide (LPS) O antigen of Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a target for protective antibodies (3, 36, 38). The studies of Knirel and colleagues (17, 19) on the chemical composition and structure of the major O-side-chain polysaccharides have provided important insights into the immunochemical properties of these antigens, but our understanding of their antigenic and immunogenic properties is incomplete. This point is highlighted by the inability to date to develop effective, LPS-specific immunotherapies for human P. aeruginosa infection (7).Results obtained with animals by using immunogens and antibodies specific to the O polysaccharides have indicated that slight chemical differences among bacterial strains with otherwise closely related O-side-chain structures can produce a complex pattern of reactions between antibodies and related antigens (13). With standard serologic methods using whole-cell agglutinations, strains of P. aeruginosa can be classified as members of one serogroup (serotype); members of each serogroup share a group-specific antigen. Further subdivision into subtypes, which correlate with structural variants determined by Knirel and colleagues (17), can be accomplished with appropriate antisera (22).To develop safe and effective O-antigen-specific P. aeruginosa vaccines, we have utilized the high-molecular-mass (>100,000-Da) fraction of O polysaccharides. These antigens are safe and immunogenic in humans and animals (13, 27, 37) and elicit protective antibodies to the strains from which they are isolated. However, in recent studies of animals immunized with a heptavalent high-molecular-weight O-polysaccharide vaccine whose individual components were isolated from single strains representative of the major serogroups causing P. aeruginosa infection, opsonic antibody responses to the group-specific antigens were not commonly elicited (13). Thus, in spite of chemical and serologic relatedness among subtype strains within a P. aeruginosa serogroup, single antigens isolated from one subtype strain do not always elicit opsonic antibodies to all of the strains within the serogroup (13). Previous results showed that a particular O antigen from a given serogroup may elicit group-specific immunity, while an O antigen from another serogroup may elicit only immunity specific to the subtype epitopes expressed on that particular O antigen.To explore this situation further and gain additional insight into the serologic diversity among P. aeruginosa LPS O antigens, we prepared high-molecular-weight O-polysaccharide immunogens from five strains of P. aeruginosa serogroup O2 that, together, express all six of the identified subtype antigens (Table ​(Table1).1). These polysaccharides were used to immunize mice, and the resultant sera were assessed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and for opsonic killing activity. The results showed a complex interaction among the strains with regard to high-molecular-weight O-polysaccharide immunogenicity, antigenicity, serogroup and subtype epitope density, and susceptibility to opsonic killing. These findings indicate that the current serogroup classifications of P. aeruginosa are probably inadequate to define the full range of LPS antigens needed to elicit comprehensive immunity to a wide range of clinical isolates.

TABLE 1

Strains used for immunogen production, their serologic classification by subtype epitope, and chemical structures of the associated O antigens Open in a separate window^aBoldface type indicates a feature of a structure that distinguishes it from a related structure of the same serogroup. Abbreviations: FucNAc, 2-acetamido-2,6-dideoxygalactose (N-acetylfucosamine); Man(NAc)₂A, 2,3-diacetamido-2,3-dideoxymannuronic acid; Man(2NAc3N)A, 2-acetamido-3-acetamidino-2,3-dideoxymannuronic acid; Gul(NAc)₂A, 2,3-diacetamido-2,3-dideoxyguluronic acid. ^bThe lower structure is also part of the O antigen of strain 170007; there is about a 2:1 ratio of the upper and lower structures.      

Genetic determinants: is there an "atherosclerosis gene"?

It is now clear that atherosclerotic disease is a chronic inflammatory disease triggered by a sequence of events initiated at sites with turbulent flow under normal conditions such as in the coronary arteries or at bifurcations or where normal laminar flow is replaced by turbulent flow because of vessel pathologies. Normally, laminar flow is protected by generation of NO by endothelial NO synthase (eNOS), which becomes activated via stretch activated channels. When the flow turns turbulent, such protective NO generation ceases, leading to endothelial cell activation and lipid deposition into the extra-cellular space. There, lipoproteins and specifically phospholipids become oxidized by cells of the monocytic-macrophage lineage. Only when the LDL-cholesterol level is high enough lipid peroxidation products are generated in sufficient amounts to perpetuate the disease by generating a feed forward loop of endothelial cell activation leading to an inflammatory response. That inflammatory response might also be added by bacterial or viral infections such as Chlamydia pneumoniae or viruses. The disease then progresses to a chronic inflammatory state, whereby the immune system seems to contribute significantly and markers of chronic inflammation such as fibrinogen, leukocytes, PAI-1 and CRP are found increased.     

Differential association of phosphatases with hematopoietic co-receptors bearing immunoreceptor tyrosine-based inhibition motifs

A novel family of inhibitory co-receptors has been recently defined according to the presence in their intracytoplasmic domain of immunoreceptor tyrosine-based inhibition motifs (ITIM). In particular, this family includes a low-affinity receptor for IgG, FcγRIIB, which is widely expressed on hematopoietic cells, as well as killer cell inhibitory receptors (KIR) for major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I proteins, expressed on both T and natural killer (NK) lymphocytes. FcγRIIB and KIR inhibitory function depends upon the tyrosine phosphorylation of their respective ITIM. Phosphorylated FcγRIIB and KIR ITIM bind the tandem SH2 tyrosine phosphatases, SHP-1 and SHP-2. Recently, FcγRIIB has been shown to associate with a polyphosphate inositol 5-phosphatase, SHIP, which appears to be involved in its inhibitory function. Using cell lysate adsorption to phosphorylated ITIM peptides and surface plasmon resonance, we demonstrate here that, in contrast to FcγRIIB, KIR (CD158b: p58.2) do not bind to SHIP, and only recruit SHP-1 and SHP-2. In addition, we show that point mutation of the amino acid residue in position tyrosine-2 of FcγRIIB and KIR ITIM abolihes their binding to SHP-1 and SHP-2, but leaves intact the association of SHIP with FcγRIIB ITIM. These data contribute to the structural definition of ITIM and document a differential recruitment of phosphatases by distinct ITIM. These findings also reveal that diverse strategies of inhibition are used by distinct members of the ITIM-bearing co-receptor family.     

Detection of fish antigens aerosolized during fish processing using newly developed immunoassays

BACKGROUND: Aerosolization of fish proteins during seafood processing has been identified as a potential route for allergic sensitization and occupational asthma among workers involved in high-risk activities. The aim of this study was to develop immunological assays for the quantification of aerosolized fish antigens in a fish-processing factory. METHODS: Polyclonal antibodies to the main fish species processed in the factory (anchovy and pilchard) were generated in rabbits and compared by ELISA inhibition assay and immunoblotting. These antisera were utilized to develop ELISA assays for the detection of fish antigens. The ELISA inhibition assays were evaluated by analyzing environmental air samples collected from three areas in a fish-processing factory: pilchard canning, fish meal production and lobster processing. RESULTS: By immunoblotting, the rabbit polyclonal antibodies demonstrated IgG antibody binding patterns comparable with IgE antibodies of fish-sensitized patients, particularly in regard to the major fish allergens parvalbumins. The sensitivity of the fish-specific ELISA assays developed was 0.5 microg/ml. The ELISA inhibition assays were able to differentiate between the two different fish species of interest but did not recognize a crustacean species. Notable differences in exposure levels to canned pilchard and anchovy antigens were demonstrated in the three different working areas of the factory, with assays having a detection limit as low as 105 ng/m(3). CONCLUSION: These ELISA-based assays are sensitive and specific to quantify differential exposure levels to fish antigens produced during fish processing, making it possible to investigate exposure-disease response relationships among workers in this industry.     

EGFR gene amplification in breast cancer: correlation with epidermal growth factor receptor mRNA and protein expression and HER-2 status and absence of EGFR-activating mutations.

The human epidermal growth factor receptor (HER) family of receptor tyrosine kinase has been extensively studied in breast cancer; however, systematic studies of EGFR gene amplification and protein overexpression in breast carcinoma are lacking. We studied EGFR gene amplification by chromogenic in situ hybridization (CISH) and protein expression by immunohistochemistry in 175 breast carcinomas, using tissue microarrays. Tumors with >5 EGFR gene copies per nucleus were interpreted as positive for gene amplification. Protein overexpression was scored according to standardized criteria originally developed for HER-2. EGFR mRNA levels, as measured by Affymetrix U133 Gene Chip microarray hybridization, were available in 63 of these tumors. HER-2 gene amplification by fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) and protein overexpression by immunohistochemistry were also studied. EGFR gene amplification (copy number range: 7-18; median: 12) was detected in 11/175 (6%) tumors, and protein overexpression was found in 13/175 (7%) tumors. Of the 11 tumors, 10 (91%) with gene amplification also showed EGFR protein overexpression (2+ or 3+ by immunohistochemistry). The EGFR mRNA level, based on Affymetrix U133 chip hybridization data, was increased relative to other breast cancer samples in three of the five tumors showing gene amplification. Exons 19 and 21 of EGFR, the sites of hotspot mutations in lung adenocarcinomas, were screened in the 11 EGFR-amplified tumors but no mutations were found. Three of these 11 tumors also showed HER-2 overexpression and gene amplification. Approximately 6% of breast carcinomas show EGFR amplification with EGFR protein overexpression and may be candidates for trials of EGFR-targeted antibodies or small inhibitory molecules.