Variations of the tracheobronchial tree: Anatomical and clinical significance

Tracheobronchial variations can be found during routine bronchoscopy or computed tomography. Previous sources estimate an incidence of 1–12%; however, these variations are often asymptomatic. Symptomatic patients present typically with cough and lower respiratory tract infection. Knowledge and understanding of tracheobronchial variations have important implications for diagnosis of symptomatic patients and performing certain procedures, including bronchoscopy and endotracheal intubation. In this review, we describe the most commonly encountered variations, tracheal bronchus and accessory cardiac bronchus, along with three minor abnormalities of this region. We also review the various imaging modalities in the diagnosis and treatment of these conditions. Clin. Anat. 27:1223–1233, 2014. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Acute myocardial infarction with normal coronary arteries in a patient with Hodgkin's disease: a late complication of irradiation and chemotherapy

We describe the case of a 31-year-old man who experienced an acute myocardial infarction 16 years after undergoing radiation and vinca alkaloid therapy for Hodgkin's disease. Even though coronary artery disease is a well-established complication after mediastinal radiation therapy, this adult patient had normal coronary angiographic results, with no traditional risk factors for coronary artery disease, and no hematologic or other abnormality associated with hypercoagulability.     

Peripheral facial nerve communications and their clinical implications

The facial nerve (CN VII) nerve follows a torturous and complex path from its emergence at the pontomedullary junction to its various destinations. It exhibits a highly variable and complicated branching pattern and forms communications with several other cranial nerves. The facial nerve forms most of these neural intercommunications with branches of all three divisions of the trigeminal nerve (CN V), including branches of the auriculotemporal, buccal, mental, lingual, infraorbital, zygomatic, and ophthalmic nerves. Furthermore, CN VII also communicates with branches of the vestibulocochlear nerve (CN VIII), glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX), and vagus nerve (CN X) as well as with branches of the cervical plexus such as the great auricular, greater, and lesser occipital, and transverse cervical nerves. This review intends to explore the many communications between the facial nerve and other nerves along its course from the brainstem to its peripheral branches on the human face. Such connections may have importance during clinical examination and surgical procedures of the facial nerve. Knowledge of the anatomy of these neural connections may be particularly important in facial reconstructive surgery, neck dissection, and various nerve transfer procedures as well as for understanding the pathophysiology of various cranial, skull base, and neck disorders.     

Anatomy of the ilioinguinal and iliohypogastric nerves with observations of their spinal nerve contributions

Proper anesthesia and knowledge of the anatomical location of the iliohypogastric and ilioinguinal nerves is important during hernia repair and other surgical procedures. Surgical complications have also implicated these nerves, emphasizing the importance of the development of a clear topographical map for use in their identification. The aim of this study was to explore anatomical variations in the iliohypogastric and ilioinguinal nerves and relate this information to clinical situations. One hundred adult formalin fixed cadavers were dissected resulting in 200 iliohypogastric and ilioinguinal nerve specimens. Each nerve was analyzed for spinal nerve contribution and classified accordingly. All nerves were documented where they entered the abdominal wall with this point being measured in relation to the anterior superior iliac spine (ASIS). The linear course of each nerve was followed, and its lateral distance from the midline at termination was measured. The ilioinguinal nerve originated from L1 in 130 specimens (65%), from T12 and L1 in 28 (14%), from L1 and L2 in 22 (11%), and from L2 and L3 in 20 (10%). The nerve entered the abdominal wall 2.8 ± 1.1 cm medial and 4 ± 1.2 cm inferior to the ASIS and terminated 3 ± 0.5 cm lateral to the midline. The iliohypogastric nerve originated from T12 on 14 sides (7%), from T12 and L1 in 28 (14%), from L1 in 20 (10%), and from T11 and T12 in 12 (6%). The nerve entered the abdominal wall 2.8 ± 1.3 cm medial and 1.4 ± 1.2 cm inferior to the ASIS and terminated 4 ± 1.3 cm lateral to the midline. For both nerves, the distance between the ASIS and the midline was 12.2 ± 1.1 cm. To reduce nerve damage and provide sufficient anesthetic for nerve block during surgical procedures, the precise anatomical location and spinal nerve contributions of the iliohypogastric and ilioinguinal nerves need to be considered.     

Acknowledging the use of human cadaveric tissues in research papers: Recommendations from anatomical journal editors

Research within the anatomical sciences often relies on human cadaveric tissues. Without the good will of these donors who allow us to use their bodies to push forward our anatomical knowledge, most human anatomical research would come to a standstill. However, many research papers omit an acknowledgement to the donor cadavers or, as no current standardized versions exist, use language that is extremely varied. To remedy this problem, 20 editors‐in‐chiefs from 17 anatomical journals joined together to put together official recommendations that can be used by authors when acknowledging the donor cadavers used in their studies. The goal of these recommendations is to standardize the writing approach by which donors are acknowledged in anatomical studies that use human cadaveric tissues. Such sections in anatomical papers will not only rightfully thank those who made the donation but might also encourage, motivate, and inspire future individuals to make such gifts for the betterment of the anatomical sciences and patient care.     

Large left atrial myxoma presented as fever of unknown origin: a challenging diagnosis and a review of the literature

Myxoma is the most common type of primary tumors of the heart in adults. The majority of patients with myxomas may experience symptoms due to central or peripheral embolism or intracardiac obstruction, while in some cases, they may be completely asymptomatic. Rarely, patients develop unusual symptoms that complicate the diagnostic evaluation. Herein, we describe the case of a 70-year-old patient with a long-lasting low-grade fever due to a large left atrial myxoma revealed during a transthoracic echocardiography.     

Expression of hypoxia-related tissue factors in astrocytic gliomas. A multivariate survival study with emphasis upon carbonic anhydrase IX

Carbonic anhydrase IX (CAIX) is a transmembrane enzyme involved in the reversible metabolism of carbon dioxide to carbonic acid and, hence, in physiological pH regulation. It also participates in cellular differentiation and proliferation, its expression being absent in most normal tissues. It has been recently postulated that the hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF-1) pathway up-regulated by hypoxia accounts for CAIX overexpression in most human tumors. In the present study, we examined the expression of this enzyme in diffuse gliomas of astrocytic origin in relation to vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and HIF-1alpha expression, proliferation rate (as assessed with Ki-67 antigen), microvessel morphology, and survival. Of 84 cases analyzed, 61 cases (72.6%) displayed strong membrane and/or cytoplasmic expression of CAIX and were grouped as positive. Immunoreactivity tended to have a perinecrotic distribution and increased in parallel with the extent of necrosis (P < .001) and histologic grade (P < .001). A positive correlation was also noted with HIF-1alpha and VEGF expression (P < .001), proliferation rate (P = .010), microvessel density (P = .004), and microvessel caliber parameters (P = .014-.038). In univariate survival analysis, increased CAIX expression was associated with shortened survival in the entire cohort (P < .0001), along with VEGF (P = .0205) and HIF-1alpha levels (P = .0190). Multivariate analysis selected the interaction model of CAIX, with grade and age as the only parameters independently affecting survival. CAIX expression was also the only significant parameter for the survival of patients with grades II/III. We conclude that CAIX may be used as a prognostic indicator in diffuse astrocytomas to refine the information provided by grade. Given the role of CAIX in the acidification of tumor environment and its up-regulation by hypoxia, it is thought that CAIX expression may be linked to resistance of tumor cells to radiotherapy by allowing them to acclimatize to a hypoxic and acidic microenvironment.