The interstitial nuclei of the human anterior hypothalamus: an investigation of sexual variation in volume and cell size, number and density

The four interstitial nuclei of the anterior hypothalamus (INAH) have been considered as candidate human nuclei for homology with the much studied sexually dimorphic nucleus of the preoptic area of the rat. Assessment of the INAH for sexual dimorphism has produced discrepant results. This study reports the first systematic examination of all four INAH in the human for sexual variation in volume, neuronal number and neuronal size. Serial Nissl-stained coronal sections through the medial preoptic area and anterior hypothalamus were examined from 18 males and 20 females who died between the ages of 17 and 65 without evidence of hypothalamic pathology or infection with the human immunodeficiency virus. A computer-assisted image-analysis system and commercial stereology software package were employed to assess total volume, neuronal number and mean neuronal size for each INAH. INAH3 occupied a significantly greater volume and contained significantly more neurons in males than in females. No sex differences in volume were detected for any of the other INAH. No sexual variation in neuronal size or packing density was observed in any nucleus. The present data corroborate two previous reports of sexual dimorphism of INAH3 but provide no support for previous reports of sexual variation in other INAH.     

Neuroprotective strategies in parkinson’s disease: protection against progressive nigral damage induced by free radicals

Brain undergoes neurodegeneration when excess free radicals overwhelm antioxidative defense systems during senescence, head trauma and/or neurotoxic insults. A site-specific accumulation of ferrous citrate-iron complexes in the substantia nigra dopaminergic neurons could lead to exaggerated dopamine turnover, dopamine auto-oxidation, free radical generation, and oxidant stress. Eventually, this iron-catalyzed dopamine auto-oxidation results in the accumulation of neuromelanin, a progressive loss of nigral neurons, and the development of Parkinson's disease when brain dopamine depletion is greater than 80%. Emerging evidence indicates that free radicals such as hydroxyl radicals ((.-)OH) and nitric oxide ((.-)NO) may play opposite role in cell and animal models of parkinsonism. (.-)OH is a cytotoxic oxidant whereas oNO is an atypical neuroprotective antioxidant. (.-)NO and S-nitrosoglutathione (GSNO) protect nigral neurons against oxidative stress caused by 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP(+)), dopamine, ferrous citrate, hemoglobin, sodium nitroprusside and peroxynitrite. MPP(+), the toxic metabolite of 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP), increases the nigral uptake of iron complexes and dopamine overflow leading to the generation of (.-)OH, protein oxidation, lipid peroxidation, and associated retrograde degeneration. In addition to GSNO, MPP(+)-induced oxidative neurotoxicity can be prevented by antioxidants including selegiline, 7-nitroindazole, 17beta-estradiol, melatonin, alpha-phenyl-tert-butylnitrone and U78517F. Similar to selegiline, 7-nitroindazole is a MAO-B inhibitor, which blocks the bio-activation of MPTP and oxidative stress. Freshly prepared but not light exposed, (.-)NO-exhausted GSNO is about 100 times more potent than the classic antioxidant glutathione. Via S-nitrosylation, GSNO also inhibits proteolysis and cytotoxicity caused by caspases and HIV-1 protease. Furthermore, in addition to protection against serum deprivation stress, the induction of neuronal NOS1 in human cells increases tolerance to MPP(+)-induced neuro-toxicity since newly synthesized (.-)NO prevents apoptosis possibly through up-regulation of bcl-2 and down regulation of p66(shc). In conclusion, reactive oxygen species are unavoidable by-products of iron-catalyzed dopamine auto-oxidation, which can initiate lipid peroxidation, protein oxidation, DNA damage, and nigral loss, all of which can be prevented by endogenous and exogenous (.-)NO. Natural and man-made antioxidants can be employed as part of preventative or neuroprotective treatments in Parkinson's disease and perhaps dementia complexes as well. For achieving neuroprotection and neuro-rescue in early clinical parkinsonian stages, a cocktail therapy of multiple neuroprotective agents may be more effective than the current treatment with extremely high doses of a single antioxidative agent.     

An antibody targeting the N-terminal domain of SARS-CoV-2 disrupts the spike trimer

The protective human antibody response to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) focuses on the spike (S) protein, which decorates the virion surface and mediates cell binding and entry. Most SARS-CoV-2 protective antibodies target the receptor-binding domain or a single dominant epitope (“supersite”) on the N-terminal domain (NTD). Using the single B cell technology called linking B cell receptor to antigen specificity through sequencing (LIBRA-Seq), we isolated a large panel of NTD-reactive and SARS-CoV-2–neutralizing antibodies from an individual who had recovered from COVID-19. We found that neutralizing antibodies against the NTD supersite were commonly encoded by the IGHV1-24 gene, forming a genetic cluster representing a public B cell clonotype. However, we also discovered a rare human antibody, COV2-3434, that recognizes a site of vulnerability on the SARS-CoV-2 S protein in the trimer interface (TI) and possesses a distinct class of functional activity. COV2-3434 disrupted the integrity of S protein trimers, inhibited the cell-to-cell spread of the virus in culture, and conferred protection in human angiotensin-converting enzyme 2–transgenic (ACE2-transgenic) mice against the SARS-CoV-2 challenge. This study provides insight into antibody targeting of the S protein TI region, suggesting this region may be a site of virus vulnerability.     

Lessons learned from four advanced abdominal pregnancies at an East African Health Center

AIMS: To analyze diagnosis and treatment of four advanced abdominal pregnancies in a low-resource setting of a developing country. METHODS: Extrauterine pregnancies occurring between 1997 and 2003 were identified from hospital records of the Mikumi Health Center in Tanzania/East Africa. RESULTS: A total of 45 extrauterine pregnancies were diagnosed four of which were advanced and located in the abdominal cavity. At the time of diagnosis, pregnancies were at 33, 34, 36 and 39 weeks of gestation, respectively. All four mothers survived but three of four fetuses died. One child is alive and well three years after delivery. CONCLUSION: Abdominal pregnancy is rather difficult to detect in a low-resource setting of a developing country. Persistent abdominal pain and tenderness, as well as fetal movements in the upper abdomen associated with abnormal fetal lie, may lead to its diagnosis. Localizing the fetal heart sounds in the maternal epigastrium especially in patients with abdominal pain may also be helpful in diagnosing an abdominal pregnancy. In addition, the lack of cervical changes or a displaced cervix should lead to the suspicion of an abdominal pregnancy.     

Physical principles, methodology, consistency, and safety in Doppler assessment of the fetal-placental circulation

Introduction of Doppler ultrasound in obstetrical practice has changed both management and understanding of several diseases that put at risk women and them fetuses. To establish necessary basics and correctly apply this technique, this review will focus in physical principles, acquisition methods, consistency, and safety issues of Doppler ultrasound, in order to improve precision, accuracy and interpretation of this methodology.