End or means--the "what" and "how" of observed intentional actions

Action understanding and learning are suggested to be mediated, at least in part, by the human mirror neuron system (hMNS). Static images as well as videos of actions with the outcome occluded have been shown to activate the hMNS. However, whether the hMNS preferentially responds to end or means of an action remains to be investigated. We, therefore, presented subjects with videos of intentional actions that were shown from two perspectives (factor 1, perspective: first vs. third person) while subjects directed their attention to the means or the end thereof (factor 2, task: means vs. end). End- or means-related changes in BOLD signal and corticospinal excitability (CSE) were assessed using fMRI and TMS, respectively. Judging the means of an action compared with its end differentially activated bilateral ventral premotor (vPMC) and inferior parietal cortex (IPL), that is, the core regions of the hMNS. The reverse contrast revealed left precuneus and bilateral superior frontal, angular, and middle temporal gyrus activity. In accordance, the two tasks, although identically in stimulus properties, modulated CSE differentially. Although recent studies suggest that the hMNS may prefer the presence of a goal or context, our data show that within the same context, it responds preferentially when attention is directed to the action means. Consequently, in addition to inferring action goals, a key function of the hMNS may be to anticipate the trajectories and dynamics of observed actions, which is a prerequisite for any timely interaction.     

Identification and characterization of a highly virulent triple reassortant H1N1 swine influenza virus in the United States

A highly virulent H1N1 influenza A virus, A/Swine/Kansas/77778/2007 (KS07), which caused approximately 10% mortality in finishing pigs, was isolated from herds in the Midwestern United States. Molecular and phylogenic analysis revealed this swine isolate was a triple reassortant virus, similar to an H1N1 virus that infected humans and pigs at an Ohio county fair in August 2007. A pig challenge model was developed to evaluate the pathogenicity and transmission capacity of the KS07 virus. The results confirmed that the KS07 virus is highly virulent in pigs and easily transmitted to sentinel animals. The KS07 virus failed to cross-react with a panel of H1-specific swine sera. Interestingly, the KS07 virus shed for a prolonged period up to 7 days in infected pigs, indicating that this virus can spread efficiently between animals. The highly virulent H1N1 swine influenza virus is further evidence of reassortment among avian, human and swine influenza viruses and justifies the need for continued surveillance of influenza viruses in swine.     

Examining the role of parental frightened/frightening subtypes in predicting disorganized attachment within a brief observational procedure

Following Main and Hesse's hypothesis, several investigators have affirmed that frightened/frightening (FR) as well as particular atypical maternal behaviors are associated with infant disorganized and adult unresolved attachment. Here, for the first time, FR behavior was observed in (a) middle-class father-infant (n = 25) and independent mother-infant dyads (n = 50) and (b) a brief laboratory play session. In addition, relations between disorganization, unresolved attachment, and the six FR system subscales were explored. Paternal and maternal overall FR behavior was related to infant disorganization (n = 75, phi = .61, p < .001), and for a subsample where Adult Attachment Interviews were available (n = 32), to unresolved adult attachment (phi = .59, p < .001). At the subscale level, disorganized-FR behaviors were related to infant disorganization, but only for mother-infant dyads. Across the whole sample, both dissociative-FR and threatening-FR subscales were associated with infant disorganization. The dissociative-FR subscale emerged as the central predictor of infant disorganization and was the only subscale significantly related to unresolved attachment. The appearance of FR behavior in this 18-min play procedure suggests that FR probably occurs more frequently than previously suspected. The possible role of dissociative processes in unresolved adult attachment, disorganized attachment, and FR parental behavior is discussed.     

Anticoagulant and anti-platelet effects are maintained following coadministration of otamixaban, a direct factor Xa inhibitor, and acetylsalicylic acid

The pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics and safety of the direct factor Xa inhibitor, otamixaban, with and without concomitant acetylsalicylic acid (ASA) were investigated in healthy volunteers. The study was a double-blind, placebo-controlled 3-way crossover study. Sixty-eight male volunteers in total were randomised to otamixaban, ASA, or otamixaban with ASA. ASA (300 mg once a day) was started 2 days before and continued on the day of the otamixaban 6-hour IV infusion (0.3 and 0.5 mg/kg). Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic parameters (coagulation markers, platelet function tests and skin bleeding time) were determined. Drug interaction was assessed by the ratios of geometric means and 90% confidence intervals (90% CI)of the parameter estimates. Pharmacokinetic parameters of otamixaban remained unchanged with ASA. Ratios of geometric means (90% CI) were for Ceoi 96.54 (91.21-102.19) and 95.04 (90.10-100.24) and for AUC 98.0 (93.92-102.25) and 95.90 (92.61-99.31), for 0.3 and 0.5 mg/kg, respectively. No drug interaction was observed between otamixaban and ASA on the coagulation and platelet function parameters. Neither otamixaban nor ASA had an effect on skin bleeding time; their co-administration led to a slight prolongation of skin bleeding time above the normal range without any clinically relevant bleeding. This study demonstrated that the desired effects of otamixaban and ASA, namely anticoagulation and platelet inhibition, respectively, are maintained during co-administration of both drugs.     

Incidence and impact of herpes simplex and cytomegalovirus detection in the respiratory tract after lung transplantation

I. Engelmann, N. Hesse, C. Fegbeutel, M. Strüber, M. Wehrhane, J. Gottlieb, T. Welte, T.F. Schulz, A.R. Simon, F. Mattner. Incidence and impact of herpes simplex and cytomegalovirus detection in the respiratory tract after lung transplantation.
Transpl Infect Dis 2011: 13: 259–265. All rights reserved Abstract: Herpesvirus infections cause morbidity in lung transplant recipients. The study was conducted to investigate the incidence and impact of herpes simplex virus (HSV) and cytomegalovirus (CMV) detection in the respiratory tract (RT) of lung and heart–lung transplant recipients (LTR) during the postoperative phase. In a prospective cohort study, 91 LTR having at least 1 nasopharyngeal swab (NPS) sent for virus diagnostics were monitored for CMV and HSV detection in NPS during their post‐transplant hospital stay on cardiothoracic surgery wards (median 4 weeks) by direct immunofluorescence testing for HSV, virus culture, and CMV and HSV polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Bronchoalveolar lavages (BALs) were analyzed with the same protocol except that HSV PCR was only performed on request. Risk factor analysis for the outcome ‘90‐day mortality’ was performed. Fifteen LTR had virus detection in NPS (16.5%): 9 had CMV, 5 had HSV, and 1 had both CMV and HSV. Four of 84 LTR had CMV detection in BAL (4.8%). Absence of CMV detection in NPS had a negative predictive value of 98.8% for absence of CMV detection in BAL. HSV DNA detection in NPS, especially if detected within 8 days after transplantation, was associated with 90‐day mortality. In conclusion, detection of herpesviruses in the RT was clinically relevant and frequent, despite antiviral prophylaxis.     

c-kit expression identifies cardiovascular precursors in the neonatal heart

Directed differentiation of embryonic stem cells indicates that mesodermal lineages in the mammalian heart (cardiac, endothelial, and smooth muscle cells) develop from a common, multipotent cardiovascular precursor. To isolate and characterize the lineage potential of a resident pool of cardiovascular progenitor cells (CPcs), we developed BAC transgenic mice in which enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) is placed under control of the c-kit locus (c-kit^BAC-EGFP mice). Discrete c-kit-EGFP⁺ cells were observed at different stages of differentiation in embryonic hearts, increasing in number to a maximum at about postnatal day (PN) 2; thereafter, EGFP⁺ cells declined and were rarely observed in the adult heart. EGFP⁺ cells purified from PN 0–5 hearts were nestin⁺ and expanded in culture; 67% of cells were fluorescent after 9 days. Purified cells differentiated into endothelial, cardiac, and smooth muscle cells, and differentiation could be directed by specific growth factors. CPc-derived cardiac myocytes displayed rhythmic beating and action potentials characteristic of multiple cardiac cell types, similar to ES cell-derived cardiomyocytes. Single-cell dilution studies confirmed the potential of individual CPcs to form all 3 cardiovascular lineages. In adult hearts, cryoablation resulted in c-kit-EGFP⁺ expression, peaking 7 days postcryolesion. Expression occurred in endothelial and smooth muscle cells in the revascularizing infarct, and in terminally differentiated cardiomyocytes in the border zone surrounding the infarct. Thus, c-kit expression marks CPc in the neonatal heart that are capable of directed differentiation in vitro; however, c-kit expression in cardiomyocytes in the adult heart after injury does not identify cardiac myogenesis.     

Treadmill walking with partial body weight support versus floor walking in hemiparetic subjects

OBJECTIVE: To compare the gait of hemiparetic subjects walking on a treadmill with various body weight supports and walking on the floor. DESIGN: Hemiparetic subjects walked on a treadmill, secured in a harness, with no body weight support and with 15% and 30% body weight relief, and walked on a floor. SETTING: Kinematic laboratory of a department of rehabilitation. SUBJECTS: Eighteen hemiparetic stroke patients. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Gait cycle parameters and kinesiologic electromyogram of six muscles of the affected side and of two muscles of the nonaffected side. RESULTS: On the treadmill, patients walked more slowly because of a reduced cadence, with a longer single stance period of the paretic limb, more symmetrically, and with a larger hip extension (multivariate profile analysis, p<.05). The mean functional activities of the gastrocnemius muscle and of the first crest of the erector spinae of the paretic side were smaller on the treadmill (univariate test, p<.05). Further, the premature activity of the gastrocnemius muscle, indicating spasticity, was less on the treadmill (univariate test, p<.05); correspondingly the qualitative muscle pattern analysis revealed less co-contraction between the gastrocnemius and tibialis anterior muscles in 11 of the 18 subjects. CONCLUSIONS: Treadmill training with partial body weight support in hemiparetic subjects allows them to practice a favorable gait characterized by a greater stimulus for balance training because of the prolonged single stance period of the affected limb, a higher symmetry, less plantar flexor spasticity, and a more regular activation pattern of the shank muscles as compared with floor walking.