Neuropeptide Y Attenuates Stress‐Induced Bone Loss Through Suppression of Noradrenaline Circuits

Chronic stress and depression have adverse consequences on many organ systems, including the skeleton, but the mechanisms underlying stress‐induced bone loss remain unclear. Here we demonstrate that neuropeptide Y (NPY), centrally and peripherally, plays a critical role in protecting against stress‐induced bone loss. Mice lacking the anxiolytic factor NPY exhibit more anxious behavior and elevated corticosterone levels. Additionally, following a 6‐week restraint, or cold‐stress protocol, Npy‐null mice exhibit three‐fold greater bone loss compared to wild‐type mice, owing to suppression of osteoblast activity. This stress‐protective NPY pathway acts specifically through Y2 receptors. Centrally, Y2 receptors suppress corticotropin‐releasing factor expression and inhibit activation of noradrenergic neurons in the paraventricular nucleus. In the periphery, they act to control noradrenaline release from sympathetic neurons. Specific deletion of arcuate Y2 receptors recapitulates the Npy‐null stress response, coincident with elevated serum noradrenaline. Importantly, specific reintroduction of NPY solely in noradrenergic neurons of otherwise Npy‐null mice blocks the increase in circulating noradrenaline and the stress‐induced bone loss. Thus, NPY protects against excessive stress‐induced bone loss, through Y2 receptor‐mediated modulation of central and peripheral noradrenergic neurons. © 2014 American Society for Bone and Mineral Research.     

Clinical investigation of human alpha interferon in chronic myelogenous leukemia

Fifty-one patients with previously untreated or minimally treated chronic myelogenous leukemia in chronic phase received human alpha interferon 3 to 9 X 10(6) units intramuscularly (IM) daily until complete hematologic remission, then at doses ranging from 3 X 10(6) units every other day to 9 X 10(6) units daily. Forty-one (80%) patients achieved a hematologic response, 36 (71%) of them attaining a complete hematologic remission with normal peripheral WBC and differential counts. Responding patients showed continuous but slow normalization of several other blood and marrow parameters including platelet counts, serum lactic dehydrogenase and B12 levels, and marrow cellularity and maturation index. Suppression of the Philadelphia chromosome on serial cytogenetic studies of marrow metaphases was documented in 20 of the 36 patients who achieved complete hematologic remission (56%; 39% of total group), eight of whom (22%) had a decrease of the Philadelphia chromosome-positive metaphases to less than 35%. These changes were persistent for 6 months or longer in 18 patients, seven of whom had continuous suppression of the Philadelphia chromosome to less than 90% for a median of 30+ months (range 21+ to 39+ months). After a median follow-up period of 37 months, 25 patients remain in continued disease control with interferon therapy. The projected 3-year survival rate is 76%, with a yearly death rate of 6%, 9%, and 9% in the first 3 years. Response, Philadelphia chromosome suppression, and survival were significantly better among patients in the low-risk category compared to intermediate- and high-risk categories, as defined by a multivariate analysis-derived prognostic model. The projected 3- year survival rate was 94% for patients who achieved a complete hematologic remission on interferon therapy and 45% for those who did not. Thirteen patients have developed blastic crisis, six with lymphoid and three with undifferentiated morphology. We conclude that human leukocyte alpha interferon effectively controls chronic myeloid leukemia and allows reappearance of diploid hemopoietic cells in some patients.     

Phenotypic and functional characterization of T-BAM (CD40 ligand)+ T- cell non-Hodgkin's lymphoma

The precise mechanisms regulating T-helper function have been intensively investigated. We and others have recently identified a new T-cell-B-cell-activating molecule called T-BAM that directs B-cell differentiation by interacting with the CD40 molecule on B cells. Using a specific monoclonal antibody against T-BAM (5C8), we have previously shown that T-BAM expressing T cells are predominantly CD4+CD8- and in normal lymphoid tissue have a unique distribution. However, no information has been obtained regarding the phenotype and functional properties of human neoplastic T cells. Therefore, we investigated T- BAM expression immunohistochemically in 87 well-characterized T-cell non-Hodgkin's lymphomas and lymphoid leukemias (LL). We found that 21/81 neoplasms expressed detectable T-BAM and these positive tumors belong almost exclusively to the CD4+CD8- subtype. In addition, to determine whether T-BAM expression could be induced on T-BAM-LL cells, we activated T-BAM-LLs in vitro and showed that T-BAM could be upregulated only in CD4+CD8- tumors. Our studies clearly show that T- BAM is constitutively expressed in a large number of T-cell neoplasms with a relative mature phenotype (CD4+CD8-) and that only CD4+ neoplastic T cells can be induced in vitro to express this molecule. Additional studies are necessary to identify the biologic significance of T-BAM expression and its potential and clinical implications.     

Inhibition and complexation of activated protein C by two major inhibitors in plasma

To determine the major physiologic inhibitors of activated protein C (APC), plasma was incubated with APC or with Protac C and subjected to immunoblotting. APC:inhibitor complexes gave two major bands reacting with antiprotein C antibodies when immunoblotted on nondenaturing gels, and additional minor bands that varied between serum and plasma. Formation of one of the two major bands of APC:inhibitor complex, but not the other, was stimulated by heparin and only this band reacted with antibodies to the previously described APC inhibitor that is here designated PCI-1. Plasma immunodepleted of PCI-1 formed complexes with APC as visualized with antiprotein C but not anti-PCI-1 antibodies, and exhibited heparin-independent inhibition of APC activity, providing evidence for the existence of a second major physiologic APC inhibitor, PCI-2. Formation of APC:PCI-2 complexes in PCI-1-depleted plasma paralleled inhibition of APC amidolytic activity. PCI-2 was separated from PCI-1 and partially purified using column chromatography. PCI-2 formed inactive complexes of approximately 110,000 molecular weight (mol wt) with APC suggesting PCI-2 has an approximate mol wt of 50,000. Thus, inhibition of APC in plasma involves two major distinct 50,000 mol wt inhibitors, the heparin-dependent PCI-1 and the heparin- independent PCI-2.     

Pre-B acute lymphoblastic leukemia cells may induce T-cell anergy to alloantigen

Even if neoplastic cells express tumor associated antigens they still may fail to function as antigen presenting cells (APC) if they lack expression of one or more molecules critical for the induction of productive immunity. These cellular defects can be repaired by physiologic activation, transfection, or fusion of tumor cells with professional APC. Although such defects can be repaired, antitumor specific T cells may still fail to respond in vivo if they may have been tolerized. Here, human pre-B cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (pre-B ALL) was used as a model to determine if primary human tumor cells can function as alloantigen presenting cells (alloAPC) or alternatively whether they induce anergy. In the present report, we show that pre-B cell ALL express alloantigen and adhesion molecules but uniformly lack B7-1 (CD80) and only a subset express B7-2 (CD86). Pre-B ALL cells are inefficient or ineffective alloAPC and those cases that lack expression of B7-1 and B7-2 also induce alloantigen specific T- cell unresponsiveness. Under these circumstances, T-cell unresponsiveness could be prevented by physiologic activation of tumor cells via CD40, cross-linking CD28, or signaling through the common gamma chain of the interleukin-2 receptor on T cells. Taken together, these results suggest that pre-B ALL may be incapable of inducing clinically significant T-cell-mediated antileukemia responses. This defect may be not only due to their inability to function as APC, but also due to their potential to induce tolerance. Attempts to induce clinically significant antitumor immune responses may then require not only mechanisms to repair the antigen presenting capacity of the tumor cells, but also reversal of tolerance.     

High incidence of monoclonal proteins in the serum and urine of chronic lymphocytic leukemia patients

Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) is generally considered a nonsecretory B cell immunoproliferative disorder. Conventional electrophoretic and immunoelectrophoretic methods have revealed serum monoclonal proteins in less than 10% of these patients. However, there is increasing experimental evidence from in vitro studies demonstrating that CLL cells may secrete immunoglobulins, particularly free light chains. We examined the serum and urine of 36 consecutive CLL patients for monoclonal proteins using sensitive immunochemical methods (high resolution agarose gel electrophoresis combined with immunofixation). The results obtained were correlated with the Rai stage, quantitative immunoglobulin levels, and lymphocyte membrane immunoglobulin phenotype of the leukemic cells. Twenty-three monoclonal proteins were identified in the serum or urine of 22 patients, an incidence of 61%. Six patients had serum monoclonal proteins, seven had only urinary monoclonal proteins, and nine had monoclonal proteins in serum and urine. In every instance the monoclonal protein was the same light chain type as expressed on the leukemic cells. Our findings suggest that the monoclonal proteins observed in the serum or urine of CLL patients are secretory products of the tumor cells and that their discovery is a function of the sensitivity of the method used for their detection.     

Role of accessory cells in cytokine production by T cells in chronic B- cell lymphocytic leukemia

We investigated the production of cytokines by highly purified T helper cells from B-cell chronic lymphocytic leukemia (B-CLL) patients stimulated by different activation pathways, and we studied the influence of various accessory cell populations on the pattern of the secretion of cytokines, including interleukin (IL)-2, IL-4, interferon- gamma (IFN-gamma), and IL-10. Neither a qualitative nor a quantitative difference in cytokine production and proliferative capacity was observed in CLL-derived purified T cells compared with normal individuals, when T cells were stimulated by different pathways, including CD3, CD2, and costimulation with CD28. Addition of autologous accessory cells (aAC), however, dramatically influenced the cytokine pattern of normal versus B-CLL-derived T cells. CLL cells as aAC caused a marked increase of IL-2, whereas IFN-gamma was only slightly induced and IL-4 was not influenced. In contrast, in normal individuals addition of aAC, which predominantly consisted of monocytes, resulted in a significant increase of IFN-gamma and a reduction of IL-4 secretion. IL-2 production was inhibited by higher concentrations of aAC. The increased stimulation of IL-2 production by CLL cells was not specific to the leukemic cell population, as purified B cells from normal individuals had the same effect. On the other hand, purified monocytes from CLL patients and controls both induced IFN-gamma production and inhibited IL-4 secretion. After antigen-specific stimulation with tetanus toxoid, cytokine secretion was influenced by the type of aAC in a similar pattern. We conclude that T helper cells derived from patients with B-CLL are intrinsically normal and that the predominance of B cells as accessory cells in CLL significantly alters the immune function of T helper cells in vitro.     

Phase I study of Topotecan, a new topoisomerase I inhibitor, in patients with refractory or relapsed acute leukemia

The purpose of this study was to define, in a phase I study in leukemia, the maximally tolerated dose (MTD), major toxicities, and possible antitumor activity of Topotecan, a new topoisomerase I (topo I) inhibitor. Topotecan was delivered by a 5-day continuous infusion every 3 to 4 weeks to patients with refractory or relapsed acute leukemia, at doses ranging from 3.5 mg/m2 to 18 mg/m2 per course. Twenty-seven patients were treated, including 17 patients with acute myelogenous or undifferentiated leukemia, 7 with acute lymphocytic leukemia, and 3 with chronic myelogenous leukemia in blastic phase. Severe mucositis was the dose-limiting toxicity occurring in two of five patients treated with Topotecan 11.8 mg/m2 per course; a third patient had prolonged myelosuppression. At the MTD of 10 mg/m2 per course, 1 of 12 patients had severe mucositis and 5 had mild-to- moderate mucositis. Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and prolonged myelosuppression were uncommon. Three patients (11%) achieved a complete response, two (7%) had a partial response, and one (4%) had a hematologic improvement. The overall complete plus partial response rate was 19%, and 24% in acute myelogenous or undifferentiated leukemia. A novel in vitro assay that quantifies Topotecan-stabilized topo I-DNA complexes in patient samples was used, which demonstrated heterogeneity in the ability of Topotecan to interact with topo I, the intracellular target of Topotecan. This phase I study defined the MTD of Topotecan to be 10 mg/m2 by continuous infusion over 5 days every 3 to 4 weeks in patients with refractory or relapsed acute leukemia. Severe mucositis was the dose-limiting toxicity. Future studies will define the precise activity of Topotecan in different leukemia subsets, its efficacy in combination with other antileukemic drugs, and correlations between Topotecan-induced topo I-DNA complex formation and individual patient response to Topotecan.     

Interferon-alpha stimulates production of interleukin-10 in activated CD4+ T cells and monocytes

In the present study, we investigated the effect of interferon-alpha (IFN-alpha) on the expression of interleukin-10 (IL-10) mRNA and protein synthesis in human monocytes and CD4+ T cells. In mononuclear cells, IFN-alpha induced expression of IL-10 mRNA and further enhanced lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated IL-10 expression. In purified monocytes, a strong expression of IL-10 mRNA induced by LPS was not further enhanced by IFN-alpha. In highly purified CD4+ T cells, IFN- alpha upregulated IL-10 mRNA upon activation with phytohemagglutinin and phorbol myristate acetate. In purified monocytes, an effect of IFN- alpha on IL-10 protein synthesis was dependent on costimulation with LPS. Maximal stimulation of IL-10 protein by IFN-alpha was seen after prolonged incubation periods of 48 to 96 hours, whereas IFN-gamma reduced IL-10 production in the early incubation period. Similar effects of IFN-alpha were observed in CD4+ T cells activated with CD3 and CD28 monoclonal antibodies. Addition of IFN-alpha caused an increase of IL-10 in culture supernatants of activated T-helper cells of more than 100% after 96 hours of incubation. In contrast, other cytokines, including IFN-gamma and IL-4, had no influence on IL-10 secretion stimulated by CD3 and CD28 in CD4+ T cells. In serum samples of IFN-alpha-treated individuals, we failed to detect an influence of cytokine treatment on IL-10 serum levels, confirming the requirement of additional activating signals for IFN-alpha-mediated effects on IL-10 synthesis. In conclusion, IFN-alpha enhances the late induction of IL- 10, which physiologically occurs upon stimulation of monocytes and T cells. Biologically, this effect might enhance the negative-feedback mechanism ascribed to IL-10, which limits inflammatory reactions.