End-tidal Carbon Dioxide Monitoring during Procedural Sedation

OBJECTIVE: To prospectively determine whether end-tidal carbon dioxide (ETCO2) monitors can detect respiratory depression (RD) and the level of sedation in emergency department (ED) patients undergoing procedural sedation (PS). METHODS: This was a prospective observational study conducted in an urban county hospital of adult patients undergoing PS. Patients were monitored for vital signs, depth of sedation per the physician by the Observer's Assessment of Alertness/Sedation scale (OAA/S), pulse oximetry, and nasal-sample ETCO2 during PS. Respiratory depression was defined as an oxygen saturation <90%, an ETCO2 >50 mm Hg, or an absent ETCO2 waveform at any time during the procedure. The physician also determined whether protective airway reflexes were lost during the procedure and assisted ventilation was required, or whether there were any other complications. Rates of RD were compared with the physician assessment of airway loss and between agents using chi-square statistics. Spearman's rho analysis was used to determine whether there was a correlation between ETCO2 and the OAA/S score. RESULTS: Seventy-four patients were enrolled in the study. Forty (54.1%) received methohexital, 21 (28.4%) received propofol, ten (13.5%) received fentanyl and midazolam, and three (4.1%) received etomidate. Respiratory depression was seen in 33 (44.6%) patients, including 47.5% of patients receiving methohexital, 19% receiving propofol (p = 0.008), 80% receiving fentanyl and midazolam, and 66.6% receiving etomidate. No correlation between OAA/S and ETCO2 was detected. Eleven (14.9%) patients required assisted ventilation at some point during the procedure, all of whom met the criteria for RD. Pulse oximetry detected 11 of the 33 patients with RD. Post-hoc analysis revealed that all patients with RD had an ETCO2 >50 mm Hg, an absent waveform, or an absolute change from baseline in ETCO2 >10 mm Hg. CONCLUSIONS: There was no correlation between ETCO2 and the OAA/S score. Using the criteria of an ETCO2 >50 mm Hg, an absolute change >10 mm Hg, or an absent waveform may detect subclinical RD not detected by pulse oximetry alone. The ETCO2 may add to the safety of PS by quickly detecting hypoventilation during PS in the ED.     

Importance of Dietary Fiber in Childhood

Dietary fiber has important health benefits in childhood, especially in promoting normal laxation. Currently, children consume amounts of dietary fiber that appear to be inadequate for optimal health promotion and disease prevention. It is prudent to recommend that children older than 2 years of age increase dietary fiber intake to an amount equal to or greater than their age + 5 g/day. According to the “age + 5” rule dietary fiber intake would increase from 8 g/day at age 3 years to 25 g/day by age 20 years. After age 20, dietary fiber levels of 25 to 35 g/day are recommended. Dietary fiber intake should be increased gradually in childhood by increasing consumption of a variety of fruits, vegetables, legumes, cereals, and other whole-grain products. Although very high fiber intake in childhood could have adverse effects, the potential health benefits of a moderate increase in dietary fiber substantially outweigh the possible risks, especially in highly industrialized countries such as the United States. A safe range of dietary fiber intake for children may be between age + 5 and age + 10 g/day. This range is considered safe even for children and adolescents with marginal intakes of some vitamins and minerals; should provide enough dietary fiber for normal laxation; and may provide enough added dietary fiber to help prevent chronic diseases.J Am Diet Assoc. 1995; 1140-1146, 1149.     

The HIV-Positive Physician and Disability Insurance

Occupational exposure to HIV is becoming a daily hazard in many emergency departments. Emergency physicians who are protected by disability insurance policies are likely to believe that if they are unable to continue working because of HIV-positive status, their disability policies will provide them with a source of income. Unfortunately, analysis of case law regarding claims under disability policies shows that the law is unlikely to consider an asymptomatic, HIV-positive physician disabled for purposes of payments under disability policies. Therefore, it is necessary for emergency physicians to make sure this issue is resolved before buying and relying on a disability policy so that an anticipated safety net will be operative over the full range of hazards that emergency physicians face.[Lavely R: The HIV-positive physician and disability insurance. Ann Emerg Med June 1994;23:1355-1362.]     

Patient expectations and satisfaction with medical care for upper respiratory infections

To describe the determinants of patient satisfaction with medical care, self-administered questionnaires were given to a consecutive sample of 237 patients coming to an ambulatory care practice for the treatment of upper respiratory infections (URIs). Patients' most important goal was to obtain a diagnosis (57%). They usually got more reassurance, medication, and personal interest than they had expected (p = 0.0001). In a multivariate model, patients' satisfaction was related to the degrees of personal interest and reassurance they had received and to whether they felt they had received the right medication (r2 = 0.45, p = 0.0001). The authors concluded that patients with URIs generally want a diagnosis but are primarily satisfied by the personal interest, the reassurance, and the medication they receive.