Who pays for health care in Asia?

We estimate the distributional incidence of health care financing in 13 Asian territories that account for 55% of the Asian population. In all territories, higher-income households contribute more to the financing of health care. The better-off contribute more as a proportion of ability to pay in most low- and lower-middle-income territories. Health care financing is slightly regressive in three high-income economies with universal social insurance. Direct taxation is the most progressive source of finance and is most so in poorer economies. In universal systems, social insurance is proportional to regressive. In high-income economies, the out-of-pocket (OOP) payments are proportional or regressive while in low-income economies the better-off spend relatively more OOP. But in most low-/middle-income countries, the better-off not only pay more, they also get more health care.     

A reevaluation of the threshold exposure level of inhaled JP-8 in mice

C57BL/6 mice were nose-only exposed to JP-8 jet fuel at average concentrations of 45, 267, and 406 mg JP-8/m(3) for 1 hr/d for 7 days to further test the hypothesis that exposure to JP-8 concentrations below the current permissible exposure level (PEL) of 350 mg/m(3) will induce lung injury, and to validate a new "in-line, real-time" total hydrocarbon analysis system capable of measuring both JP-8 vapor and aerosol concentrations. Pulmonary function and respiratory permeability tests were performed 24 to 30 hr after the final exposures. No significant effects were observed at 45 or 267 mg/m(3). The only significant effect observed at 406 mg/m(3) was a decrease in inspiratory dynamic lung compliance. Morphological examination and morphometric analysis of distal lung tissue demonstrated that alveolar type II epithelial cells showed limited cellular damage with the notable exception of a significant increase in the volume density of lamellar bodies (vacuoles), which is indicative of increased surfactant production, at 45 and 406 mg/m(3). The terminal bronchial epithelium showed initial signs of cellular damage, but the morphometric analysis did not quantify these changes as significant. The morphometric analysis techniques appear to provide an increased sensitivity for detecting the deleterious effects of JP-8 as compared to the physiological evidence offered by pulmonary function or respiratory permeability tests. These observations suggest that the current 350 mg/m(3) PEL for both JP-8 jet fuel and for other more volatile petroleum distillates should be reevaluated and a lower, more accurate PEL should be established with regard human occupational exposure limits.