S-100beta protein is upregulated in astrocytes and motor neurons in the spinal cord of patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a neurodegenerative disease characterized by progressive motor neuron loss and astrogliosis. We studied the immunohistochemical expression of S-100beta, a calcium-binding protein with both neurotrophic and neurotoxic activities, in the spinal cord of patients with ALS. Adjacent sections were processed with an in situ end-labeling technique for the demonstration of apoptosis-related DNA fragmentation. In controls, low expression of S-100beta was found in astrocytes but not motor neurons. Compared to controls, S-100beta was overexpressed in ALS. Most stained cells were reactive astrocytes, but a minority of motor neurons was also labeled. Neuronal labeling was unrelated to the presence of signs of atrophy/degeneration. S-100beta expression was also unrelated to neuronal or glial apoptosis. S-100beta upregulation in ALS spinal cord suggests that the protein might be involved in cellular defense mechanisms against oxidative stress.     

Modulation of Cytokeratin Expression in The Hamster Thymus: Evidence For a Plasticity of The Thymic Epithelium

Cytokeratin (CK) expression was investigated, by means of immunocytochemistry, in the hamster thymic epithelium during ontogeny, as well as in primary cultures and upon glucocorticoid hormone treatment in vivo. As compared to the distribution pattern of distinct monoclonal antibody-defined cytokeratins in the normal adult thymus, CK modulation was evidenced in the three situations studied. During thymus ontogeny, both cytokeratins of simple lining epithelia, as CK8 and CK18, as well as the CK1/CK10 pair (typical marker of terminal stage of keratinization), were expressed since early stages of thymus development. They were located in the central region of thymic lobules preceding the cortical-medullary distinctions. This differed from what had been previously shown for mouse thymus ontogeny, revealing that the interspecific diversity in the distribution pattern of thymic cytokeratins occurred early in fetal life. A modulation of CK expression was also detected when hamster thymic epithelial cells (TEC) were led to grow in culture, with a down-regulation of CK19 contrasting with an enhancement of CK18 expression. This diverged from the maintenance of the in situ pattern when human TEC were cultured. Last, in vivo hydrocortisone treatment, known to increase the numbers of KL1⁺ cells in the mouse thymus medulla, promoted a cortical expression of the CK1/CK10 pair in the hamster thymus. Taken together, our findings demonstrate a continuous plasticity of the thymic epithelium, at least regarding cytokeratin expression, and enlarge the concept of interspecific diversity of intrathymic CK distribution in conditions as morphogenesis, in vitro system, and responsiveness to glucocorticoid hormone treatment.     

Anti-HIV effects of chloroquine: inhibition of viral particle glycosylation and synergism with protease inhibitors

OBJECTIVE: We tested the effects of chloroquine (CQ) on glycosylation of HIV particles and in combination with protease inhibitors (PIs) on HIV replication and on P-glycoprotein (P-gp)/multidrug resistance protein-1 (MRP1). DESIGN: CD4 cell lines were infected with laboratory strains and peripheral blood mononuclear cells were infected with primary isolates for evaluation of the anti-HIV effects. Peripheral blood lymphocytes were evaluated for of P-gp and MRP1 functions. METHODS: HIV replication was assessed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. HIV glycosylation was measured by metabolic labeling of viral particles with [H] glucosamine. Synergism was tested using isobolograms. P-gp and MRP1 functions were assayed using rhodamine 123 (Rh123) and carboxyfluorescein (CF) efflux assays, respectively. RESULTS: CQ alone inhibited HIV replication and glycosylation in a dose-dependent manner. In combination with indinavir (IDV), ritonavir, or saquinavir (SQV), CQ had a synergistic effect at concentrations found in plasma of subjects receiving malaria prophylaxis. CQ decreased the 50% effective concentration of IDV in primary isolates from Africa and restored the response to IDV or SQV in 3 PI-resistant isolates. CQ increased the block of Rh123 and CF efflux activity exerted by PIs. CONCLUSION: The inhibitory effects of CQ on HIV glycosylation are associated with synergistic effects in combination with PIs. The CQ/PI combination exerts combined inhibitory effects on P-gp and MRP1 function.     

A comparison of release kinetics and glutamate receptor properties in shaping rod–cone differences in EPSC kinetics in the salamander retina

Synaptic transmission from cones is faster than transmission from rods. Using paired simultaneous recordings from photoreceptors and second-order neurones in the salamander retina, we studied the contributions of rod–cone differences in glutamate receptor properties and synaptic release rates to shaping postsynaptic responses. Depolarizing steps evoked sustained calcium currents in rods and cones that in turn produced transient excitatory postsynaptic currents (EPSCs) in horizontal and OFF bipolar cells. Cone-driven EPSCs rose and decayed faster than rod-driven EPSCs, even when comparing inputs from a rod and cone onto the same postsynaptic neurone. Thus, rod–cone differences in EPSCs reflect properties of individual rod and cone synapses. Experiments with selective AMPA and KA agonists and antagonists showed that rods and cones both contact pharmacologically similar AMPA receptors. Spontaneous miniature EPSCs (mEPSCs) exhibited unimodal distributions of amplitude and half-amplitude time width and there were no rod–cone differences in mEPSC properties. To examine how release kinetics shape the EPSC, we convolved mEPSC waveforms with empirically determined release rate functions for rods and cones. The predicted EPSC waveform closely matched the actual EPSC evoked by cones, supporting a quantal release model at the photoreceptor synapse. Convolution with the rod release function also produced a good match in rod-driven cells, although the actual EPSC was often somewhat slower than the predicted EPSC, a discrepancy partly explained by rod–rod coupling. Rod–cone differences in the rates of exocytosis are thus a major factor in producing faster cone-driven responses in second-order retinal neurones.     

Multiple pathways of cell invasion are regulated by multiple families of serine proteases

The complex process of tumor invasion requires the coordinated expression and activity of cell-substratum adhesive interactions and of cell-associated protease systems, which destroy the extracellular matrix (ECM), in order to enable the invading cells to simultaneously grip and destroy the anatomical barriers that control cell spreading. A number of data indicate that such a `grip and go' process may be performed by an enlarging series of cell membrane-associated serine proteases and serine protease receptors, which provide the invasive cells with a functional unit (the protease and its receptor), able to mediate cell-substratum adhesion through specific receptor domains, to proteolytically degrade ECM and to deliver into the cell signals that up-regulate the expression either of the protease/receptor complex, or of other adhesion molecules, such as integrins. There is evidence that some proteases and protease receptor expression are under the control of tumor hypoxia, which is the result of an imbalance in oxygen supply and demand. The urokinase-type plasminogen activator (u-PA) receptor (u-PAR) is under hypoxic control and cooperates with other serine proteases of the blood coagulation pathways that may extravasate in the tumor milieu as a result of hypoxia-simulated increase of vessel permeability. Other serine proteases and their receptors cooperate with the cell-associated fibrinolytic system to promote cell invasion. Among these, tissue factor and its ligand coagulation factor VII, thrombin and its protease-activated receptors, and type II trans-membrane serine proteases seem to play a crucial role. This Review takes into consideration the complex scenario of the single serine proteases and related receptors that are involved in cell invasion, as well as the protease receptor/adhesion molecule interplay which is necessary to focus the cell surface-driven proteolysis where adhesion provides a grip to the invading cell. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Differential association of phosphatases with hematopoietic co-receptors bearing immunoreceptor tyrosine-based inhibition motifs

A novel family of inhibitory co-receptors has been recently defined according to the presence in their intracytoplasmic domain of immunoreceptor tyrosine-based inhibition motifs (ITIM). In particular, this family includes a low-affinity receptor for IgG, FcγRIIB, which is widely expressed on hematopoietic cells, as well as killer cell inhibitory receptors (KIR) for major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I proteins, expressed on both T and natural killer (NK) lymphocytes. FcγRIIB and KIR inhibitory function depends upon the tyrosine phosphorylation of their respective ITIM. Phosphorylated FcγRIIB and KIR ITIM bind the tandem SH2 tyrosine phosphatases, SHP-1 and SHP-2. Recently, FcγRIIB has been shown to associate with a polyphosphate inositol 5-phosphatase, SHIP, which appears to be involved in its inhibitory function. Using cell lysate adsorption to phosphorylated ITIM peptides and surface plasmon resonance, we demonstrate here that, in contrast to FcγRIIB, KIR (CD158b: p58.2) do not bind to SHIP, and only recruit SHP-1 and SHP-2. In addition, we show that point mutation of the amino acid residue in position tyrosine-2 of FcγRIIB and KIR ITIM abolihes their binding to SHP-1 and SHP-2, but leaves intact the association of SHIP with FcγRIIB ITIM. These data contribute to the structural definition of ITIM and document a differential recruitment of phosphatases by distinct ITIM. These findings also reveal that diverse strategies of inhibition are used by distinct members of the ITIM-bearing co-receptor family.     

Evolution of the influenza virus neuraminidase gene during drift of the N2 subtype

The complete genetic information for the neuraminidase (NA) gene of influenza virus A/Bangkok/1/79 has been cloned by in vitro synthesis of dsDNA, insertion into pBR322 plasmid, and transformation of Escherichia coli. The nucleotide sequence of the NA gene has been determined by the Maxam and Gilbert method. It is 1466 nucleotides long and contains a single open reading frame with a coding capacity for 469 amino acids. When compared to the NA genes of the N2 strains A/Victoria/3/75, A/Udorn/72, A/NT/60/68, and A/RI/5-/57, 90% of the nucleotide positions and 87% of the amino acid positions remained invariant. Forty-two nucleotide changes and 14 amino acid changes accumulated in the period 1975-1979, but the general structure of the protein appeared to remain constant.     

Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato infection in larval Ixodes ricinus (Acari: Ixodidae) feeding on blackbirds in northwestern Italy

Birds belonging to 59 species (n = 1,206) were live captured in Piemonte, northwestern Italy, in 2001. Ixodes ricinus (L.) larvae were collected from 59 birds belonging to nine species, and nymphs were recovered on 79 birds belonging to 10 species. Eurasian blackbirds, Turdus merula L., had significantly higher levels of infestation by ticks than other passerine species. Larval I. ricinus of blackbirds peaked in summer, when prevalence was 39% (95% confidence interval 24.2-55.5) and mean number of ticks per host was 3.3 (1.6-7.2), whereas nymphs peaked in spring, when prevalence was 72.2% (54.8-85.8) and mean number of ticks per host was 6.9 (4.4-10.7). Immature I. ricinus were coincidentally aggregated on blackbirds, with 15 blackbirds feeding 67.4% of nymphs and 40.3% of larvae, and coinfestation by both stages was relatively high in summer: Kappa = 0.64 (0.40-0.88). Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato was identified by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in 58.3% (35.9-78.5) of larvae with engorgement ratio > or = 3 that were collected from blackbirds. Larvae that were collected from other passerine species gave negative PCR results. Sixteen of 21 PCR-positive samples belonged to B. garinii (76.2%), and five (23.8%) were Borrelia valaisiana. Results of this study suggest that blackbirds play an important role as hosts for immature I. ricinus and as reservoir of Borrelia garinii in northwestern Italy.     

Prevalence of thermotolerant Campylobacter in pheasants (Phasianus colchicus)

The present study was undertaken with the aim to evaluate the prevalence of thermotolerant Campylobacter spp. in living pheasants in Italy. To achieve this goal, a total of 240 living pheasants, equally shared between female and male birds, were examined. Thermotolerant Campylobacter spp. was isolated in 104 out of 204 (43.3%) living pheasants analysed. Campylobacter coli (100%) and Campylobacter jejuni (13.5%) were identified by polymerase chain reaction. Adult pheasants showed a significantly higher prevalence value (P < 0.05) than younger pheasants.