Socio—cultural factors influencing insecticide treated bed net utilization in a malaria endemic city in north—central Nigeria

ObjectiveTo ascertain the socio-cultural factors influencing the rate of utilization of insecticide treated bed nets (ITNs) in a malaria endemic city of Makurdi, north central Nigeria.MethodsThe study was cross-sectional in nature using systematic sampling method to identify households. Both quantitative and qualitative data was generated from adult women using structured and semi structured questionnaires, and focused group discussions (FGDs) to obtain information on rate and patterns of utilization of ITNs. Information such as age, educational level, marital status, awareness or otherwise of the existence of malaria, and factors influencing rate of ownership and utilization of ITNs were obtained. FGDs were used to obtain qualitative information on rate of utilization of ITNs not captured in the questionnaires. Data obtained was analysed using Epi Info 6 statistical software.ResultsAmong the respondents interviewed, 97.0% (2 013/2 075) were aware of existence of malaria and 87.0% of these (1 751/2 013) would associate it with mosquitoes. The rate of ownership of any bed net, ITNs and untreated bed nets (UTNs) was 25.1%, 17.0% and 8.3%, respectively. Utilization of ITNs among children was 30.0% (112/373) and UTNs 12.9% (48/373). Positive contributors to ITNs utilization were literacy, enhanced economy, experience of marriage, and being gainfully employed (P<0.05); while negative contributors were ignorance, poverty and some cultural beliefs and values.ConclusionsA more synchronized advocacy should be carried out on the potential benefits of ITNs utilization and sustained. Also ITNs should be made available to the people of the community at minimal or no cost.     

Degradation of tissue-type plasminogen activator by human monocyte- derived macrophages is mediated by the mannose receptor and by the low- density lipoprotein receptor-related protein

The balance of tissue-type plasminogen activator (t-PA) production and degradation determines its concentration in blood and tissues. Disturbance of this balance may result in either increased or decreased proteolysis. In the present study, we identified the receptor systems involved in the degradation of t-PA by human monocytes/macrophages in culture. Monocytes were cultured and became macrophages within 2 days. At 4 degrees C, 125I-t-PA bound to macrophages with high (apparent dissociation constant [kd], 1 to 5 nmol/L) and low affinity (kd > 350 nmol/L). At 37 degrees C, the cells internalized and degraded t-PA via the high affinity binding sites, which were partially inhibited by mannan. The low affinity binding sites were 6-aminohexanoic acid- inhibitable and not involved in t-PA degradation. Degradation of t-PA was upregulated during differentiation of monocytes to macrophages. Dexamethasone further upregulated the mannan-inhibitable t-PA degradation. Lipopolysaccharide downregulated both mannan-inhibitable and non-mannan-inhibitable t-PA degradation. Non-mannan-inhibitable degradation was completely blocked by recombinant 39-kD receptor- associated protein (RAP, inhibitor of lipoprotein receptor-related protein [LRP]), whereas mannan-inhibitable degradation was blocked by the addition of a monoclonal antibody against the mannose receptor. No differences between the degradation of t-PA and functionally inactivated t-PA were observed. We conclude that human monocyte-derived macrophages are able to bind, internalize, and degrade t-PA. Degradation of t-PA does not require complex formation with plasminogen activator inhibitors. The macrophages use two independently regulated receptors, namely, the mannose receptor and LRP, for the uptake and degradation of t-PA.     

High-molecular-weight kininogen is exclusively membrane bound on endothelial cells to influence activation of vascular endothelium

An important biologic function of high-molecular-weight kininogen (HK) is to deliver bradykinin (BK) to its cellular receptors. Internalization and degradation of HK may provide a mechanism by which endothelial cells modulate the production of BK and control its activities. Therefore, we investigated the binding and subsequent distribution of biotinylated-HK (biotin-HK) associated with human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC). HUVEC bound 3 to 4 times more HK and with greater avidity at 1 to 3 hours at 37 degrees C than at 4 degrees C (Bmax = 1.0 +/- 0.02 x 10(7) molecules/cell, kd = 7 +/- 3 nmol/L v Bmax = 2.6 +/- 0.2 x 10(6) molecules/cell, kd = 46 +/- 8 nmol/L). However, there was no evidence that the difference was caused by internalization of HK at the higher temperature. First, the same amount of biotin-HK was associated with nonpermeabilized and permeabilized HUVEC using buffers containing 20 to 50 mumol/L zinc ion in the absence or presence of 2 mmol/L calcium ion. Second, binding of biotin-HK to HUVEC was approximately 92% reversible at 1 hour when the cells were maintained at both 37 degrees C and 4 degrees C. Third, neither chloroquine nor primaquine altered the amount of biotin-HK bound to HUVEC. Fourth, biotin-HK bound to HUVEC was almost completely removed by pronase. Fifth, the nonpermeable dye, crystal violet, almost completely quenched the fluorescence signal emitted by HUVEC-associated fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) HK. Finally, the localization of HUVEC-bound FITC-HK was restricted to the membrane as shown by laser scanning confocal microscopy. The expression of HK binding sites had an absolute requirement for metabolic energy, but was not dependent on new protein synthesis. Membrane-bound HK contributed to the anticoagulant nature of endothelial cells by blocking human alpha-thrombin binding and its resultant induction of prostacyclin formation. These studies indicate that HK is not internalized by HUVEC, but remains primarily on cell surfaces to be accessible for BK liberation and to modulate the binding and actions of alpha-thrombin.     

Expression of CD27 and its ligand, CD70, on chronic lymphocytic leukemia B cells

Crosslinking the CD27 antigen on T cells provides a costimulatory signal that, in concert with T-cell receptor crosslinking, can induce T- cell proliferation and cellular immune activation. We find that chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) B cells from most patients coexpress both membrane-bound and soluble CD27, along with its newly identified ligand, CD70. The expression of soluble CD27 may preclude leukemic B cells from stimulating T cells via CD70, thereby potentially impairing their ability to function as effective antigen-presenting cells. We find that leukemic B-cell expression of soluble and membrane-bound CD27 can be downmodulated through a CD40-dependent signal. This signal also induces enhanced expression of CD70 on both normal and leukemic B cells. We find that tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha, or the Th1 cytokine interferon (IFN)-gamma, also can induce downmodulation of CD27, whereas Th2-associated cytokines interleukin-4 (IL-4) or IL-10 can enhance leukemic B-cell expression of this accessory molecule. The modulation of CD27 induced by these conditions is accompanied by reciprocal changes in the expression levels of CD70, suggesting that these accessory molecules may be engaged in reciprocal receptor-ligand downmodulation. Consistent with this, we observe that co-culture of CLL B cells with transfected murine plasmacytoma cells that express human CD70 affects downmodulation of CD27 and enhanced expression of CD70 on leukemic B cells, but does not affect expression of CD27 mRNA. However, we find that CD40-crosslinking, in addition to reducing the level of CD27 protein, also reduces leukemic B-cell expression of CD27 mRNA. This argues that the changes in the expression levels of CD27 following CD40-signaling are not simply due to induced increases in the expression levels of CD70. Finally, we demonstrate that reciprocal changes in expression of CD27 and CD70 may contribute to the enhanced antigen-presenting capacity of CLL B cells after CD40-dependent leukemic B-cell activation. These findings expand the understanding of the regulation of costimulatory molecules important in antigen presentation and also have implications for the immunobiology of and therapy for CLL.     

Induction of NK activity in large granular lymphocyte leukemia: activation with anti-CD3 monoclonal antibody and interleukin 2

Large granular lymphocyte (LGL) leukemia is a rare disease characterized by clonal expansion of LGL associated with chronic neutropenia, multiple auto-antibodies, and occasionally polyarthritis. We studied cell surface antigen expression and functional activity of leukemic LGL from ten such patients. Using two-color flow cytometric analysis, we found that leukemic LGL from all ten patients expressed the CD3 and HNK-1 markers, while cells from only four patients expressed IgG Fc receptors (FcR). The LGL leukemic cells had little or no NK activity (defined as MHC-nonrestricted cytotoxicity against K562 target cells); however, NK activity could be induced in leukemic LGL by in vitro treatment with as little as 0.05 microgram/mL of anti-CD3 monoclonal antibody. Cell sorting experiments demonstrated that NK activity was induced in CD3+ leukemic LGL (either CD3+, HNK-1+ or CD3+, FcR+) with anti-CD3 monoclonal antibody but not in normal CD3+, FcR- T cells. Treatment with purified interleukin 2 (IL 2) also caused direct activation of some CD3+ leukemic LGL. Despite induction with anti-CD3 MAb or IL 2, activated leukemic LGL did not proliferate or express high density IL 2 receptors detectable by cell sorter analysis. Treatment with alpha interferon had minimal effect on NK activity of LGL leukemic cells. These results suggest that leukemic LGL may provide a useful model for examining the signals required for LGL maturation and activation.     

Loss to follow-up among youth accessing outpatient HIV care and treatment services in Kisumu,Kenya

Youth are particularly vulnerable to acquiring HIV, yet reaching them with HIV prevention interventions and engaging and retaining those infected in care and treatment remains a challenge. We sought to determine the incidence rate of loss to follow-up (LTFU) and explore socio-demographic and clinical characteristics associated with LTFU among HIV-positive youth aged 15–21 years accessing outpatient care and treatment clinics in Kisumu, Kenya. Between July 2007 and September 2010, youth were enrolled into two different HIV care and treatment clinics, one youth specific and the other family oriented. An individual was defined as LTFU when absent from the HIV treatment clinic for ≥?4 months regardless of their antiretroviral treatment status. The incidence rate of LTFU was calculated and Cox regression analysis used to identify factors associated with LTFU. A total of 924 youth (79% female) were enrolled, with a median age of 20 years (IQR 18–21). Over half, (529 (57%)), were documented as LTFU, of whom 139 (26%) were LTFU immediately after enrolment. The overall incidence rate of LTFU was 52.9 per 100 person-years (p-y). Factors associated with LTFU were pregnancy during the study period (crude HR 0.68, 95% CI 0.53–0.89); CD4 cell count >350 (adjusted hazard ratios (AHR) 0.59, 95% CI 0.39–0.90); not being on antiretroviral therapy (AHR 4.0, 95% CI 2.70–5.88); and non-disclosure of HIV infection status (AHR 1.43, 95% CI 1.10–1.89). The clinic of enrolment, age, marital status, employment status, WHO clinical disease stage and education level were not associated with LTFU. Interventions to identify and enrol youth into care earlier, support disclosure, and initiate ART earlier may improve retention of youth and need further investigation. Further research is also needed to explore the reasons for LTFU from care among HIV-infected youth and the true outcomes of these patients.     

Neuroinvasion and Encephalitis Following Intranasal Inoculation of SARS-CoV-2 in K18-hACE2 Mice

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection can cause neurological disease in humans, but little is known about the pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2 infection in the central nervous system (CNS). Herein, using K18-hACE2 mice, we demonstrate that SARS-CoV-2 neuroinvasion and encephalitis is associated with mortality in these mice. Intranasal infection of K18-hACE2 mice with 10⁵ plaque-forming units of SARS-CoV-2 resulted in 100% mortality by day 6 after infection. The highest virus titers in the lungs were observed on day 3 and declined on days 5 and 6 after infection. By contrast, very high levels of infectious virus were uniformly detected in the brains of all the animals on days 5 and 6. Onset of severe disease in infected mice correlated with peak viral levels in the brain. SARS-CoV-2-infected mice exhibited encephalitis hallmarks characterized by production of cytokines and chemokines, leukocyte infiltration, hemorrhage and neuronal cell death. SARS-CoV-2 was also found to productively infect cells within the nasal turbinate, eye and olfactory bulb, suggesting SARS-CoV-2 entry into the brain by this route after intranasal infection. Our data indicate that direct infection of CNS cells together with the induced inflammatory response in the brain resulted in the severe disease observed in SARS-CoV-2-infected K18-hACE2 mice.     

Survey on pretransfusion testing

BACKGROUND: Hospitals and blood centers throughout the United States use a variety of reagents and methods to perform pretransfusion testing. A survey was developed to determine the reagents and methods in use and their relative prevalence in different work settings. STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: A national survey on pretransfusion testing was conducted. Surveys were distributed to state and regional blood bank associations, which then distributed them to hospitals and blood centers within their region. In most instances, the blood centers distributed the survey to the local hospitals. Completed surveys were returned to the authors for review, and all information was entered into a database for analysis. RESULTS: Analysis of the data shows that the majority of blood banks use monoclonal reagents for ABO testing and monoclonal-polyclonal blended reagents for Rh testing. The data show that anti-IgG and polyclonal antihuman globulin reagents are used almost equally for antibody screening (detection) tests and that most blood banks use a three-cell antibody-screening test. Slightly more than 50 percent of hospitals use an immediate-spin crossmatch in the absence of unexpected antibodies. CONCLUSION: A number of approved reagents and methods are used by blood bank laboratories for pretransfusion testing. Facility size (number of beds) and type tend to influence the choice of methods and reagents employed. This survey provides an opportunity for blood bank laboratories to compare their current practices with those of their peers.