Emission of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and their carcinogenic potencies from cooking sources to the urban atmosphere

Traffic has long been recognized as the major contributor to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) concentrations. However, this does not consider the contribution of cooking sources of PAHs. This study set out, first, to assess the characteristics of PAHs and their corresponding benzo[a]pyrene equivalent (B[a]Peq) emissions from cooking sources to the urban atmosphere. To illustrate the importance of cooking sources, PAH emissions from traffic sources were then calculated and compared. The entire study was conducted on a city located in southern Taiwan. PAH samples were collected from the exhaust stacks of four types of restaurant: Chinese, Western, fast food, and Japanese. For total PAHs, results show that the fractions of gaseous PAHs (range, 75.9-89.9%) were consistently higher than the fractions of particulate PAHs (range, 10.1-24.1%) in emissions from the four types of restaurant. But for total B[a]Peq, we found that the contributions of gaseous PAHs (range, 15.7-21.9%) were consistently lower than the contributions of particulate PAHs (range, 78.1-84.3%). For emission rates of both total PAHs and total B[a]Peq, a consistent trend was found for the four types of restaurant: Chinese (2,038 and 154 kg/year, respectively) > Western (258 and 20.4 kg/year, respectively) > fast food (31.4 and 0.104 kg/year, respectively) > Japanese (5.11 and 0.014 kg/year, respectively). By directly adapting the emission data obtained from Chinese restaurants, we found that emission rates on total PAHs and total B[a]Peq for home kitchen sources were 6,639 and 501 kg/year, respectively. By combining both restaurant sources and home kitchen sources, this study yielded emission rates of total PAHs and total B[a]Peq from cooking sources of the studied city of 8,973 and 675 kg/year, respectively. Compared with PAH emissions from traffic sources in the same city, we found that although the emission rates of total PAHs for cooking sources were significantly less than those for traffic sources (13,500 kg/year), the emission rates of total B[a]Peq for cooking sources were much higher than those for traffic sources (61.4 kg/year). The above results clearly indicate that although cooking sources are less important than traffic sources in contributing to total PAH emissions, PAH emissions from cooking sources might cause much more serious problems than traffic sources, from the perspective of carcinogenic potency.     

乙醇-柴油混合燃料排放物的遗传毒性检测及分析

目的了解在柴油中掺烧不同比例乙醇对柴油机工作时污染排放的影响,为寻找节能、低污染汽车燃料提供科学依据。方法采用Ames试验、彗星试验及色谱-质谱联用仪对不同比例乙醇-柴油(体积比为0∶100、5∶95、10∶90、20∶80)混合燃料排放颗粒提取物(E0、E5、E10、E20)进行了遗传毒性检测和16种多环芳烃测定及分析。结果不同比例乙醇-柴油混合燃料燃烧后排放颗粒提取物在Ames试验和彗星试验中均为阳性反应,表明其具有明显的致基因突变及DNA损伤作用。其中不掺烧乙醇的柴油排放物(E0)遗传毒性作用明显,掺体积分数为5%的乙醇的排放物(E5)遗传毒性降低,增加掺烧乙醇的比例,排放物的毒性作用又逐渐增强。多环芳烃的测定结果显示,不掺烧乙醇排放物比排量较高(77.19μg·kw-1·h-1),掺烧体积分数为5%的乙醇可降低比排放量(62.43μg·kw-1·h-1),增加掺烧乙醇比例,比排量又出现明显的增加(107.15μg·kw-1·h-1)。其结果与基因突变试验和DNA损伤试验结果有一定的正相关。结论与纯柴油或高比例掺烧乙醇相比较,掺燃体积分数为5%的乙醇的柴油燃料可降低燃烧排放物中多环芳烃的比排放量和燃烧排放物的遗传毒性。     

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in tea and tea infusions

Tea is the one of most widely consumed beverage in the world. It is generally believed that tea consumption might have health promoting properties. But residues of certain chemical compounds might impose a health threat on tea drinkers. The main contaminants are heavy metals, fluoride, pesticides and even dioxins. Tea lives which possess a high surface area can be contaminated with atmospheric PAHs. The manufacturing processes may also introduce PAHs into tea lives. The aim of his study was to determine the contamination of black, green, red and white teas by PAHs. In this investigation, content of 23 PAH, i.e 16 EPA PAH and 15 EU PAH were determined in 18 brands of tea and its infusions. The analytical procedure was based on ultrasonic extraction for dried tea and liquid-liquid extraction for infusions. All samples were cleaned up by florisil cartridge. The total content of 23 PAH varied between 22.9 microg/kg to 2945.5 microg/kg and 2.7 microg/kg to 63,1 microg/kg microg/kg for BaP. The analysed tea samples showed an increasing presence of PAH in the following order (mean value): black tea < red tea < green tea < white tea. However the highest content of PAH was found in the one brand of black tea bag both in sum of PAH and BaP content. During tea infusion 1.6% of total PAHs contained in tea was released into the beverage. The dominant PAHs in tea infusion were 2, 3 and 4 rings PAH, while the most toxic compounds were found at trace amounts. The concentrations of total 23 PAHs and BaP in tea infusions ranged from 332.5 ng/dm3 to 2245.9 ng/dm3 and 0.35 ng/dm3 to 18.7 ng/dm3 respectively.     

Occupational exposure to diesel and gasoline engine exhausts and risk of lung cancer among Finnish workers

BACKGROUND: Studies on engine exhausts and lung cancer have given inconsistent results. METHODS: Economically active Finns were followed-up for lung cancer during 1971-95 (33,664 cases). Their Census occupations in 1970 were converted to exposures to diesel and gasoline engine exhausts with a job-exposure matrix. The relative risks (RRs) for cumulative exposure (CE) were defined by Poisson regression, adjusted for smoking, asbestos, and quartz dust exposure, and socioeconomic status. RESULTS: RR for engine exhausts among men did not increase with increasing CE. In women, RR for gasoline engine exhaust was 1.58 (95% CI 1.10-2.26) in the CE-category of 1-99 mg/m(3)-y and 1.66 (1.11-2.50) among those with > or =100 mg/m(3)-y (lag 20 years). With a lag of 10 years RR for the middle/highest diesel exhaust category in women was 1.42 (0.94-2.13). CONCLUSIONS: Occupational exposure to engine exhausts was not consistently associated with lung cancer in this study, possibly due to low exposure levels.     

Adequacy of benzo(a)pyrene and benzene soluble materials as indicators of exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in a Söderberg aluminum smelter

Occupational and environmental exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) occurs as a complex mixture that is evaluated using specific components, such as benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) and benzene soluble materials (BSM). Factors that influence the relationship between BaP, BSM, and other PAHs within an aluminum smelter were investigated. Personal samples collected from 1978 to 2001 were used: 576 samples were analyzed for both BaP and BSM; 479 samples were analyzed for BaP and nine other particulate PAHs. Differences in the log-transformed ratios (PAH/BaP, BaP/BSM) due to anode paste composition, pot group, season, and job were examined using linear regression. Pot groups represented differences in technology, process conditions, and building properties. The models' predicted PAH/BaP ratios were multiplied by BaP relative potency factors to estimate the relative toxicity of the mixture. The correlation between BaP and BSM depended on the anode paste source (range 0.1-0.8). In linear regression, 27% of the variability in the log-transformed BaP/BSM ratio was explained by coal tar pitch, work area, and job; no seasonal or pot group differences were observed. Within the potrooms, BaP was very strongly correlated with other PAHs (majority > 0.9). Depending on the PAH, between 23% and 89% of the variability in the log-transformed PAH/BSM was explained by season, coal tar pitch, pot group, and job. The BaP toxic equivalency factors of the mixture varied more across job (2.1-3.5) than across coal tar pitch source (1.8-2.8) or pot group (2.3-2.5). Seasonal and work area differences in the relationship between BaP and other PAHs have not been reported previously. Until these relationships are better understood, BaP seems to be a reasonable, albeit imperfect, indicator due to the strong correlation between BaP and other PAHs for a given set of conditions and due to the relative abundance of BaP exposure measurements.     

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in herbs and fruit teas

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) of which benzo[a]pyrene is the most commonly studied and measured, are fused - ring aromatic compounds formed in both natural and man made processes and are found widely distributed throughout the human environment. PAHs occur as contaminants in different food categories and beverages including water, vegetables, fruit, cereals, oils and fats, barbecued and smoked meat. The sources of PAHs in food are predominantly from environmental pollution and food processing. PAHs emissions from automobile traffic and industry activities were show to influence the PAHs levels in vegetables and fruits. The present study was carried out to determine levels of 16 basic PAHs in herbs and fruit teas. The method was based on the hexane extraction and cleaned up by florisil cartridge. The extracts were analysed by GC-MS. The levels of total PAHs varied from 48,27 microg/kg (hibiscus tea) to 1703 microg/kg (green tea). The highest level of BaP was found in lime tea (74,2 microg/kg).     

Characteristic and Source of Atmospheric PM<Subscript>10</Subscript>- and PM<Subscript>2.5</Subscript>-bound PAHs in a Typical Metallurgic City Near Yangtze River in China

The characteristics of atmospheric PM₁₀- and PM_2.5-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were investigated in Tongling city, China. Results showed that the total concentrations of PM₁₀- and PM_2.5-bound PAHs exhibited distinct seasonal and spatial variability. The metallurgic sites showed the highest PAH concentrations, which is mainly attributed to the metallurgic activities (mainly copper ore smelting) and coal combustion as the smelting fuel. The rural area showed the lowest concentrations, but exhibited significant increase from summer to autumn. This seasonal fluctuation is mainly caused by the biomass burning at the sites in the harvest season. The diagnostic ratio indicated that the main PAHs sources were vehicle exhausts, coal combustion and biomass burning. The total BaP equivalent concentration (BAP-TEQ) was found to be maximum at DGS site in winter, whereas it was minimum at BGC site in summer. Risk assessment indicates that residential exposure to PAHs in the industrial area, especially in the winter season, may pose a greater inhalation cancer risk than people living in living area and rural area.     

Study of Human Exposure to Particulate PAHs Using Personal Air Samplers

Three common sources of environmental exposure to particulate polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Taiwan were chosen for this study. They are smoke of incense burning, exhausts of motor vehicles, and fumes of charcoal burning. The campus environment without any specific PAH sources (nonpoint sources) was chosen as the control. The particulate PAH concentrations in the air samples containing smoke of incense burning were only slightly higher than those in the control. However, the total concentration of particulate PAHs in the air samples with exhausts of motor vehicles and fumes of charcoal burning was about 7.5 times and 22 times higher than those observed in the control, respectively. The mean inhalation amounts of particulate PAHs per unit time are very high both in samples with exhausts of motor vehicles (13.9 ng/min) and fumes of charcoal burning (38.1 ng/min). The exposure dose of 22 PAHs per day ranged from 3.18 to 18.0 μg/day under four exposure conditions. Moreover, the personal inhalation BaP_eq levels are in the range of 0.4 to 1.55 μg/day. Received: 29 August 2001/Accepted: 7 November 2002     

An assessment of occupational exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the UK

A cross-industry occupational hygiene survey was commissioned by the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) to determine the levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) exposure in UK industry and to determine if one or more target analytes were suitable as markers for assessing total exposure to PAHs. There were no broadly applicable UK exposure standards for assessing total exposure to PAHs. Until 1993 a guidance value for assessing exposure in coke ovens only, where PAH exposure is known to be the highest, was based on gravimetric analysis of cyclohexane-soluble material. Biological monitoring based on urinary 1-hydroxypyrene (1-OHP) is widely reported to be an effective indicator of exposure by both dermal and inhalation routes but there was no UK guidance value. The survey involved an occupational hygiene study of 25 sites using both airborne monitoring of a total of 17 individual PAHs and biological monitoring. The results showed 8 h TWA levels of total PAH in air ranged from 0.4 to 1912.6 microg m(-3) with a GM of 15.8 microg m(-3). The profile of PAHs was dominated by naphthalene, the most volatile 2-ring PAH. Airborne benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) correlated well (r(2) = 0.971) with levels of carcinogenic 4-6 ring PAHs and was an effective marker of exposure for all industries where significant particle bound PAH levels were found and, in particular, for CTPV exposure. The 8 h TWA levels of BaP ranged from <0.01 to 6.21 microg m(-3) with a GM of 0.036 microg m(-3); 90% were <0.75 microg m(-3) and 95% were <2.0 microg m(-3). Two hundred and eighteen urine samples collected from different workers at the end of shift and 213 samples collected pre-shift next day were analysed for 1-OHP. Levels of 1-OHP in end-of-shift samples were generally higher than those in pre-shift-next-day samples and showed a good correlation (r(2) = 0.768) to airborne BaP levels if samples from workers using respiratory protection or with significant dermal exposure were excluded. Urinary 1-OHP in end-of-shift samples ranged from the limit of detection (0.5 micromol mol(-1) creatinine) to 60 micromol mol(-1) creatinine with a mean of 2.49 micromol mol(-1) and a 90th percentile value of 6.7 micromol mol(-1) creatinine. The highest 1-OHP levels were found in samples from workers impregnating timber with creosote where exposure was dominated by naphthalene. If the 11 samples from these workers were excluded from the dataset, the 90% value for end-of-shift urine samples was 4 micromol mol(-1) creatinine (n = 207) and this value has since been adopted by the HSE as a biological monitoring benchmark value.     

The effect of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons on the degradation of benzo[a]pyrene by Mycobacterium sp. strain RJGII-135

Mycobacterium sp. strain RJGII-135 is capable of degrading a wide range of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), including benzo[a]pyrene (BaP). In this study, critical aspects of degradation were investigated, including compound uptake, relative rates of PAH degradation, and the effects of co-occurring PAH substrates on BaP degradation and mineralization to CO2. Mycobacterium sp. strain RJGII-135 was capable of degrading phenanthrene, anthracene, and pyrene at a 10- to 20-fold greater rate than benz[a]anthracene (BaA) and BaP. A significant amount of phenanthrene and pyrene, 30% and 10%, respectively, was completely mineralized, whereas less than 4% of anthracene, BaA, and BaP was mineralized. The PAH uptake assays demonstrated that high amounts of BaP and BaA, 81% and 75% of added compound, respectively, could be recovered from bacterial cell fractions after a 4-h incubation compared with pyrene (61%), anthracene (53%), and phenanthrene (47%). The half-saturation constant (Km) for pyrene was threefold lower for pyrene over BaP, suggesting that the degradation system in Mycobacterium sp. strain RJGII-135 has a higher affinity for pyrene, reaching maximal degradative activity at lower concentrations. No hybridization to dioxygenase gene probes nahAc, bphA1, or tolC1C2 was detected. Studies to investigate competition between different PAH substrates demonstrated that the rate of BaP metabolism was influenced by the presence of a second PAH substrate. The BaP metabolism was inhibited when coincubated with BaA, pyrene, and anthracene. Phenanthrene did not inhibit but enhanced BaP metabolism sixfold. These data suggest that induction effects of components of complex mixtures may be as important as competitive metabolism when assessing the ability of bacteria to effectively degrade high-molecular-weight PAHs in the environment.     

Oxidative Damage of the Extracts of Condensate,Particulate and Semivolatile Organic Compounds from Gasoline Engine Exhausts on Testicles of Rats

Oxidative damage induced by extracts of condensate, particulate matters and semivolatile organic compounds from gasoline engine exhausts were investigated in testicles of adult Sprague-Dawley rats. The results showed that gasoline engine exhaust could increase the contents of malondialdehyde and carbonyl protein, decrease activities of superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase, and induce DNA damage in testicle of rat. Taking together, the gasoline engine exhaust could promote oxidative damage of bio-macromolecular in testicles of rat and oxidative stress might be an alternative mechanism for male reproductive function of male mammals.     

Application of benzo(a)pyrene and coal tar tumor dose-response data to a modified benchmark dose method of guideline development

Assessment of cancer risk from exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) has been traditionally conducted by applying the conservative linearized multistage (LMS) model to animal tumor data for benzo(a)pyrene (BaP), considered the most potent carcinogen in PAH mixtures. Because it has been argued that LMS use of 95% lower confidence limits on dose is unnecessarily conservative, that assumptions of low-dose linearity to zero in the dose response imply clear mechanistic understanding, and that "acceptable" cancer risk rests on a policy decision, an alternative cancer risk assessment approach has been developed. Based in part on the emerging benchmark dose (BMD) method, the modified BMD method we used involves applying a suite of conventional mathematical models to tumor dose-response data. This permits derivation of the average dose corresponding to 5% extra tumor incidence (BMD0.05) to which a number of modifying factors are applied to achieve a guideline dose, that is, a daily dose considered safe for human lifetime exposure. Application of the modified BMD method to recent forestomach tumor data from BaP ingestion studies in mice suggests a guideline dose of 0.08 microg/kg/day. Based on this and an understanding of dietary BaP, and considering that BaP is a common contaminant in soil and therefore poses human health risk via soil ingestion, we propose a BaP soil guideline value of 5 ppm (milligrams per kilogram). Mouse tumor data from ingestion of coal tar mixtures containing PAHs and BaP show that lung and not forestomach tumors are most prevalent and that BaP content cannot explain the lung tumors. This calls into question the common use of toxicity equivalence factors based on BaP for assessing risk from complex PAH mixtures. Emerging data point to another PAH compound--H-benzo(c)fluorene--as the possible lung tumorigen.     

Risk assessment related to atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in gas and particle phases near industrial sites

Background: Inhalation is one of the main means of human exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) because of their ubiquitous presence in the atmosphere. However, most studies have considered only PAHs found in the particle phase and have omitted the contribution of the gas-phase PAHs to the risk.Objective: We estimated the lifetime lung cancer risk from PAH exposure by inhalation in people living next to the largest chemical site in Southern Europe and the Mediterranean area.Methods: We determined 18 PAHs in the atmospheric gas and particle phase. We monitored the PAHs for 1 year in three locations near the chemical site in different seasons. We used toxic equivalence factors to calculate benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) equivalents (BaP-eq) for individual PAHs and applied the World Health Organization unit risk (UR) for BaP (UR = 8.7 × 10^–5) to estimate lifetime cancer risks due to PAH exposures.Results: We observed some spatial and seasonal variability in PAH concentrations. The contribution of gas-phase PAHs to the total BaP-eq value was between 34% and 86%. The total estimated average lifetime lung cancer risk due to PAH exposure in the study area was 1.2 × 10^–4.Conclusions: The estimated risk was higher than values recommended by the World Health Organization and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency but lower than the threshold value of 10^–3 that is considered an indication of definite risk according to similar risk studies. The results also showed that risk may be underestimated if the contributions of gas-phase PAHs are not considered.     

含铅和无铅汽油汽车尾气成分和致突变性

为探讨含铅和无铅汽油汽车尾气成分和致突变性,使用含铅、无铅两种汽油,分别检测尾气中的一氧化碳（ＣＯ）和碳烃类化合物（ＨＣ）及颗粒物水平,同时利用气相色谱－质谱联用（ＧＣ／ＭＳ）对颗粒物吸附的有机物进行了分析并采用中国仓鼠肺组织（ＣＨＬ）体外微核实验检测了致突变性。结果显示无铅汽油能显著地减少ＣＯ、ＨＣ及颗粒物的排放,但两种汽油尾气颗粒物有机提取物均能诱导ＣＨＬ细胞微核率的升高,两种汽油一定量的颗粒     

Levels, distribution and source characterization of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in topsoils and roadside soils in Esbjerg, Denmark

A soil survey was performed to determine the levels, distributions and sources of 6 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in 9 selected soil environments in Esbjerg, Denmark. In all, 24 soil samples were collected and the PAHs present were extracted with dichloromethane and analysed using GC/MS/MS with ion trap detector (TCD). There were elevated levels of the individual as well as the total PAHs in the soil samples and also, all 6 PAHs were present in all the soil samples. The most abundant components were fluoranthene, benzo(b)fluoranthene and benzo(a)pyrene. The average sum of the 6 PAHs in all soil samples was 2.5?mg.kg^?1, with range from 0.24 to 7.6?mg?kg^?1. The total mean PAH concentration obtained was 1.67 times higher than the total limit set by the Danish Environmental Protection Agency (DEPA) whiles the mean benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) concentration (0.6?mg?kg^?1) also 6 times the Soil Quality Criteria (Human Health) (0.1?mg?kg^?1) by DEPA and 2 times the Maximum Permissible Concentrations (0.26?mg?kg^?1) by the Netherlands for BaP. This shows that there are elevated levels of PAH deposition on the Esbjerg soil environment which needs an urgent attention. The diagnostic ratios and the correlation analysis identified mixed petrogenic and pyrogenic sources as the main contributors of PAHs on the Esbjerg environment.     

汽油车尾气颗粒物中有机成分分析及对细胞免疫毒性研究

为了研究汽油车尾气颗粒物有机提取物中几种多环芳烃的含量及其对小鼠细胞功能的影响。「方法」采用大流量空气采样器采集汽油车尾气颗粒物,用高效液相色谱仪分析颗粒物有机提取物中６种多环芳烃（苯并（ａ）芘、苯并（ａ）蒽、Ｑｉ、芘、菲、晕苯）的含量。     

Atmospheric Deposition of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in an Urban and a Suburban Area of Korea from 2002 to 2004

Atmospheric bulk samples (wet and dry) were collected monthly during 2002 to 2004 from an urban and a suburban area in Korea for assessment of depositional flux and seasonal variations in the concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). PAH depositional flux ranged from 64.1 to 610 μg/m²/y for the urban area and from 65 to 460 μg/m²/y for the suburban area. The fluxes of PAHs measured in this study were comparable with those reported for urban and suburban areas in other countries. The fluxes of particulates and PAHs were higher in winter than in summer, consistent with the greater per capita consumption of fossil fuel in winter than in summer. Ambient temperature played a major role in the seasonal variability in PAH fluxes. Photochemical degradation of PAHs appears to occur during the summer months. The relationship of PAH depositional fluxes with major air pollutants, such as ozone, sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, and presence of particulate matter up to 10 μm in size (PM₁₀), was also investigated. Dominant PAH compounds in both the urban and the suburban locations were benzo[g,h,i]perylene, pyrene, and indeno[1,2,3-c,d]pyrene. Based on the PAH diagnostic ratios and a factor analysis, the major sources of PAHs in the urban and the suburban regions were found to be similar. Diesel exhaust, coal combustion, and gasoline emissions contributed predominantly to atmospheric PAH contamination.     

Distribution and Sources of Aliphatic and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Surface Sediments,Fish and Bivalves of Abu Qir Bay (Egyptian Mediterranean Sea)

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were detected and quantified in recent marine sediments and selected species from fishes, bivalves and crustaceans of Abu Qir Bay during the period January–October 2004. Nineteen sampling stations were chosen to collect sediment samples covering almost the Bay area. Total PAHs found in the surficial bottom sediments of the Bay were identified in moderate values ranging between 69 and 1,464 ng/g dry weights. The distribution pattern of these compounds showed the availability of most di, tri- and tetra aromatics in the Bay area in addition to their alkyl derivatives. High molecular weight aromatic hydrocarbons of five or more ring were detected everywhere in the Bay sediments. Certain number of pairs of isomer PAH concentrations are used for five origin molecular indices to identify the PAH concentration sources in the sediments of the Bay: Fluo/Py, Fluo/[Fluo + Py], LMW/HMW, BbF/BaP and BkF/BaP. Abu Qir Bay sediment samples were contaminated mainly by pyrolytic and petrogenic contaminations with strong pyrolytic inputs in the southwestern basin, while the northeastern area of the Bay is contaminated mainly by petrogenic PAHs. The studied biota samples of the Bay revealed levels of moderately contaminated specimens with total PAHs, while the carcinogenic PAH, benzo(a)pyrene were detected in most biological samples in levels ranged between 30.3 and 358 ng/g with an average of 152.4 ng/g should be taken into consideration.     

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons bound to outdoor and indoor airborne particles (PM2.5) and their mutagenicity and carcinogenicity in Silesian kindergartens,Poland

Assessment of exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) is important due to the widespread presence of PAHs in the environment and their toxicological relevance, especially to susceptible populations such as children and their health. The aim of this study is to compare indoor and outdoor concentrations of particulate matter with a diameter of 2.5 μm or less (PM2.5) and 15 individual PAHs, as well as contribution of the analyzed PAHs to mutagenic and carcinogenic activity. Samples were collected during spring season in two sites in southern Poland (Silesia) representing urban and rural areas. Indoor samples of PM2.5 were sampled in kindergartens. At the same time, in the vicinity of the kindergarten buildings, the collection of the outdoor PM2.5 samples was carried out. Mutagenic (MEQ) and carcinogenic (TEQ) equivalents related to BaP and the percentage share expressed as mutagenic (MP) and carcinogenic (CP) potential of each individual compound to the total mutagenic/carcinogenic potential of the PAH mixture were calculated. The obtained results show that high concentrations of PM2.5 (above 25 μg/m³) and 15 PM2.5-bound PAHs in outdoor and indoor air were similar in the two studied areas. In overall PAHs mutagenic and carcinogenic potential, the percentage share of benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) was dominant and varied from 49.0–54.5% to 62.5–70.0%, respectively. The carried out study indicates the necessity of reducing PAH emission from solid fuel combustion, which is reflected in PM2.5-bound PAHs concentrations and their diagnostic ratios. In the recent years, health effects on children resulting from their activity pattern and air quality in the public places have been a serious problem.