Urinary Tract Infection: Cost Study

A study of cost has been performed that considers cases and controls of healthcare-associated infections (HAI) regarding urinary tract infections (UTI) in a public hospital in the south of Chile. To perform the study, 10 cases of UTI were examined, considering the use of a urinary catheter as a risk factor. The study contributes to clarifying the costs of HAI, justifying the investments that can be made in order to prevent HAI in health centers. This study provides the basis to determine the importance not only in preventing infections, but also in the savings that the health system should consider when health centers prevent nosocomial infections.     

Modeling the costs of hospital-acquired infections in New Zealand.

OBJECTIVE: To model the economic costs of hospital-acquired infections (HAIs) in New Zealand, by type of HAI. DESIGN: Monte Carlo simulation model. SETTING: Auckland District Health Board Hospitals (DHBH), the largest publicly funded hospital group in New Zealand supplying secondary and tertiary services. Costs are also estimated for predicted HAIs in admissions to all hospitals in New Zealand. PATIENTS: All adults admitted to general medical and general surgical services. METHOD: Data on the number of cases of HAI were combined with data on the estimated prolongation of hospital stay due to HAI to produce an estimate of the number of bed days attributable to HAI. A cost per bed day value was applied to provide an estimate of the economic cost. Costs were estimated for predicted infections of the urinary tract, surgical wounds, the lower and upper respiratory tracts, the bloodstream, and other sites, and for cases of multiple sites of infection. Sensitivity analyses were undertaken for input variables. RESULTS: The estimated costs of predicted HAIs in medical and surgical admissions to Auckland DHBH were dollar 10.12 (US dollar 4.56) million and dollar 8.64 (US dollar 3.90) million, respectively. They were dollar 51.35 (US dollar 23.16) million and dollar 85.26 (US dollar 38.47) million, respectively, for medical and surgical admissions to all hospitals in New Zealand. CONCLUSIONS: The method used produces results that are less precise than those of a specifically designed study using primary data collection, but has been applied at a lower cost The estimated cost of HAIs is substantial but only a proportion of infections can be avoided. Further work is required to identify the most cost-effective strategies for the prevention of HAI.     

Epidemiology of hospital-acquired infections in veterans with spinal cord injury and disorder.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the epidemiology of hospital-acquired infections (HAIs) in veterans with spinal cord injury and disorder (SCI&D). DESIGN: Retrospective medical record review. SETTING: Midwestern Department of Veterans Affairs spinal cord injury center. PARTICIPANTS: A total of 226 patients with SCI&D hospitalized at least once during a 2-year period (October 1, 2001, through September 30, 2003). RESULTS: A total of 549 hospitalizations were included in the analysis (mean duration of hospitalization, 33.7 days); an HAI occurred during 182 (33.2%) of these hospitalizations. A total of 657 HAIs occurred during 18,517 patient-days in the hospital (incidence rate, 35.5 HAIs per 1,000 patient-days). Almost half of the 226 patients had at least 1 HAI; the mean number of HAIs among these patients was 6.0 HAIs per patient. The most common HAIs were urinary tract infection (164 [25.0%] of the 657 HAIs; incidence rate, 8.9 cases per 1,000 patient-days), bloodstream infection (111 [16.9%]; incidence rate, 6.0 cases per 1,000 patient-days), and bone and joint infection (103 [15.7%]; incidence rate, 5.6 cases per 1,000 patient-days). The most common culture isolates were gram-positive bacteria (1,082 [45.6%] of 2,307 isolates), including Staphylococcus aureus, and gram-negative bacteria (1,033 [43.6%] of isolates), including Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Multivariable regression demonstrated that predictors of HAI were longer length of hospital stay (P=.002), community-acquired infection (P=.007), and use of a urinary invasive device (P=.01) or respiratory invasive device (P=.04). CONCLUSIONS: The overall incidence of HAIs in persons with SCI&D was higher than that reported for other populations, confirming the increased risk of HAI in persons with spinal cord injury. The increased risk associated with longer length of stay and with community-acquired infection suggests that strategies are needed to reduce the duration of hospitalization and to effectively treat community-acquired infection, to decrease infection rates. There is significant room for improvement in reducing the incidence of HAIs in this population.     

Three-year prevalence of healthcare-associated infections in Dutch nursing homes

From November 2007 for a period of three years (2007-2009), we conducted an annual one-day prevalence study of healthcare-associated infections (HAIs) among nursing home residents in the Nijmegen region of The Netherlands. In the absence of national HAI definitions applicable to the nursing home setting, we used modified definitions based on US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention criteria for bloodstream infection, lower respiratory tract infection, bacterial conjunctivitis, and gastroenteritis. For the surveillance of urinary tract infection (UTI), criteria established by the Dutch Association of Elderly Care Physicians were used. Resident characteristics were recorded and data collection was performed by the attending elderly care physicians. For the three-year period, 1275, 1323, and 1772 nursing home residents were included, resulting in a prevalence of HAIs of 6.7%, 7.6% and 7.6%, in 2007, 2008 and 2009, respectively. The demographics with respect to age (mean 81 years) and sex (31% men, 69% women) were almost identical in all three years. UTI was the most prevalent HAI with 3.5%, 4.2%, and 4.1% respectively. Most HAIs occurred among residents of rehabilitation units. The prevalence of HAIs varied by nursing home (range: 0.0-32.4%). We present the results of the first prevalence study of HAIs in Dutch nursing homes. Point prevalence studies of HAIs, as part of a quality improvement cycle, are an important cornerstone of infection control programmes in nursing homes, allowing us to further increase patient safety efforts in this setting.     

Point prevalence survey for healthcare-associated infections within Canadian adult acute-care hospitals

A survey of adult patients 19 years of age and older was conducted in February 2002 in hospitals across Canada to estimate the prevalence of healthcare-associated infections (HAIs). A total of 5750 adults were surveyed; 601 of these had 667 HAIs, giving a prevalence of 10.5% infected patients and 11.6% HAIs. Urinary tract infections (UTI) were the most frequent HAI, shown by 194 (3.4%) of the patients surveyed. Pneumonia was found in 175 (3.0%) of the patients, surgical site infections (SSI) in 146 (2.5%), bloodstream infections (BSI) in 93 (1.6%) and Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhoea (CDAD) in 59 (1%). In this first national point prevalence study in Canada, the prevalence of HAI was found to be similar to that reported by other industrialized countries.     

不同病原体术后院感的直接经济损失分析

目的 分析不同病原体的医院感染对术后患者住院费用、住院天数的影响,为优化院感防控措施提供依据。方法回顾性收集2019年住院手术患者35 223例,分为术后院感组和无院感组。采用1∶10病例对照比进行倾向性评分匹配,联合广义线性回归模型估计额外住院费用均值（即边际费用）,分析因不同病原体术后院感的直接经济损失差异。结果术后院感组336例与无院感组3 295例匹配成功。倾向性评分匹配示,术后院感组较无院感组住院费用中位数增加43 455.77元、住院天数中位数延长13 d（均P<0.001）;用广义线性回归模型进一步分析归因于不同病原体感染的直接经济损失差异发现,铜绿假单胞菌术后感染导致的住院费用增加倍数最高,其额外住院费用均值为162 631.55 (95%CI:80 431.95～244 831.15)元,是无院感组的4.80 (95%CI:3.28～7.37)倍;住院天数增加倍数排第3,是无院感组的2.69(95%CI:2.19～3.35)倍。结论 不同病原体导致的术后医院感染中,铜绿假单胞菌对患者直接经济损失影响最为显著,建议明确铜绿假单胞菌感染控制的优先干预环节,采取相应防...     

导管相关性尿路感染的预后评估

目的了解导管相关性尿路感染(catheter-associated urinary tract infection,CAUTI)对留置尿管的ICU患者临床预后的影响程度。方法基于ICU医院感染目标性监测数据库,对2015年4月-2018年3月进入四川大学华西医院5个成人ICU留置尿管>2天的患者开展回顾性队列研究,以住ICU期间发生CAUTI为暴露因素,通过倾向性评分(propensity score,PS)匹配法控制混杂因素的影响,分析CAUTI对留置尿管患者预后指标的影响。结果共纳入留置尿管>2天的患者11163例,使用尿管107566患者日,发生CAUTI 185人次、192例次,例次感染率为1.7%、导管千日感染率为1.8‰。经PS匹配后的单因素分析结果显示:CAUTI患者较无CAUTI的患者:留置尿管总天数延长23天、住ICU天数延长23天、住院天数延长22天,住院总费用增加11.1万元;多因素回归分析结果显示:留置尿管总天数、住ICU天数、住院天数和住院总费用为CAUTI独立危险因素(P<0.05);CAUTI并不增加ICU全因死亡和出院全因死亡的风险。结论CAUTI或许不增加留置尿管患者的住院死亡风险,但可明显延长其留置尿管时间、住ICU时间和住院时间,增加住院花费,浪费我国有限的医疗资源。因此,依然有必要采取适当的干预措施对其进行防控。     

重症监护室医院获得性泌尿道感染病原菌分析

目的了解重症监护室(ICU)医院获得性泌尿道感染及病原菌情况,为预防和控制ICU患者泌尿道医院感染提供科学依据。方法对2013年32所医院ICU泌尿道医院感染目标监测资料进行分析。结果共监测ICU住院患者23 680例,发生医院获得性泌尿道感染157例,医院获得性泌尿道感染率为0.66%;导尿管使用率为80.83%,导尿管相关泌尿道感染发病率为1.25‰。共检出菌株162株,其中真菌66株,占40.74%;革兰阴性(G-)菌51株,占31.48%;革兰阳性(G+)菌45株,占27.78%。结论 ICU医院获得性泌尿道感染病原菌以真菌为主,医院应尽早采取综合干预措施,控制ICU医院获得性泌尿道感染。     

重症监护病房导管相关医院感染的目标性监测与分析

目的分析某教学医院重症监护病房（ICU）导管相关医院感染及其病原微生物的情况。方法采用前瞻性调查, 对2015年1月1日-11月30日所有入住ICU＞48 h的患者进行目标性监测，对侵入性操作相关医院感染病例进行分析，以美国疾病控制与预防中心（CDC）颁布的指南作为诊断依据，标准化模式进行数据收集，并采用描述性研究进行统计分析。结果2015年1-11月共监测254例ICU住院患者。导管相关医院感染（DA HAIs）例次发病率为15.35%，例次日感染发病率为10.23‰。呼吸机相关肺炎(VAP), 导尿管相关尿路感染（CAUTI）及血管导管相关血流感染(CLABSI)发病率分别为7.05‰、4.91‰及3.22‰。ICU医院感染的主要部位为下呼吸道（48.27%）, 其次为血液系统（27.59%）、泌尿系统（22.99%）及消化系统（1.15%），常见病原菌为鲍曼不动杆菌，占21.52%。结论该目标性监测系统能有效识别ICU导管相关医院感染的流行病学现状与趋势，并制定有效控制措施，从而确保医疗质量安全。     

Healthcare-associated infections in Finnish acute care hospitals: a national prevalence survey, 2005

The objectives of the first national prevalence survey on healthcare-associated infections (HAIs) in Finland were to assess the extent of HAI, distribution of HAI types, causative organisms, prevalence of predisposing factors and use of antimicrobial agents. The voluntary survey was performed during February-March 2005 in 30 hospitals, including tertiary and secondary care hospitals and 10 (25%) other acute care hospitals in the country. The overall prevalence of HAI was 8.5% (703/8234). Surgical site infection was the most common HAI (29%), followed by urinary tract infection (19%) and primary bloodstream infection or clinical sepsis (17%). HAI prevalence was higher in males, among intensive care and surgical patients, and increased with age and severity of underlying illness. The most common causative organisms, identified in 56% (398/703) of patients with HAIs, were Escherichia coli (13%), Staphylococcus aureus (10%) and Enterococcus faecalis (9%). HAIs caused by multi-resistant microbes were rare (N = 6). A total of 122 patients were treated in contact isolation due to the carriage of multi-resistant microbes. At the time of the survey, 19% of patients had a urinary catheter, 6% central venous line and 1% were ventilated. Antimicrobial treatment was given to 39% of patients. These results can be used for prioritising infection control measures and planning more detailed incidence surveillance of HAI. The survey was a useful tool to increase the awareness of HAI in participating hospitals and to train infection control staff in diagnosing HAIs.     

Surveillance of healthcare-associated infections in Indonesian hospitals

A cross-sectional surveillance of healthcare-associated infections (HAIs) and exposure to risk factors was undertaken in two Indonesian teaching hospitals (Hospitals A and B). Patients from internal medicine, surgery, obstetrics and gynaecology, paediatrics, a class department and intensive care were included. Patient demographics, antibiotic use, culture results, presence of HAI [phlebitis, surgical site infection (SSI), urinary tract infection (UTI) and septicaemia] and risk factors were recorded. To check for interobserver variation, a validation study was performed in Hospital B. In Hospitals A and B, 1,334 and 888 patients were included, respectively. Exposure to invasive devices and surgery was 59%. In Hospital A, 2.8% of all patients had phlebitis, 1.7% had SSI, 0.9% had UTI and 0.8% had septicaemia. In Hospital B, 3.8% had phlebitis, 1.8% had SSI, 1.1% had UTI and 0.8% had septicaemia. In the validation study, the prevalence as recorded by the first team was 2.6% phlebitis, 1.8% SSI, 0.9% UTI and no septicaemia, and that recorded by the second team was 2.2% phlebitis, 2.6% SSI, 3.5% UTI and 0.9% septicaemia. This study is the first to report on HAI in Indonesia. Prevalence rates are comparable to those in other countries. The reliability of the surveillance was insufficient as a considerable difference in prevalence rates was found in the validation study. The surveillance method used is a feasible tool for hospitals in countries with limited healthcare resources to estimate their level of HAI and make improvements in infection control. Efficiency can be improved by restricting the surveillance to include only those patients with invasive procedures. This can help to detect 90% of all infections while screening only 60% of patients.     

First year of mandatory reporting of healthcare-associated infections, Pennsylvania: an infection control-chart abstractor collaboration.

BACKGROUND: In 2004, the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania mandated hospitals to report healthcare-associated infections (HAIs). The increased workload led our Infection Control staff to collaborate with Atlas, a group of chart abstractors. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to assess our first year of experience with mandatory reporting of HAIs--specifically, to assess Atlas' contribution to surveillance. DESIGN: Cases were selected if they had 1 or more of the International Classification of Diseases, 9th Revision, Clinical Modification (ICD-9-CM) codes designated by Pennsylvania as a possible HAI. After training by the Infection Control staff, Atlas applied National Nosocomial Infection Surveillance (NNIS) system case definitions for catheter-associated urinary tract infections (UTIs) and surgical site infections (SSIs), and they applied NNIS chest imaging criteria to eliminate cases that were not ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP). To assess Atlas' performance, Infection Control staff conducted a parallel review. RESULTS: For discharges from the hospital during the fourth quarter of 2004, a total of 410 UTIs, 59 SSIs, and 56 VAPs were identified on the basis of state-designated ICD-9-CM codes; review by Atlas/Infection Control determined that 15%, 15%, and 16% of cases met case definitions, respectively. Of cases reviewed by both Infection Control and Atlas, 87% of the assessments made by Atlas were correct for UTI, and 96% were correct for SSI. For VAP, Infection Control concluded that 39% of cases could be ruled out on the basis of chest imaging criteria; Atlas correctly dismissed these 12 cases but incorrectly dismissed an additional 6 (error, 19%). Surveillance was not timely: 1-2 months elapsed between the time of HAI onset and the earliest case review. CONCLUSIONS: With ongoing training by Infection Control, Atlas successfully demonstrated a role in retrospective HAI surveillance. However, despite a major effort to comply with mandates, time lags and other design limitations rendered the data of low utility for Infection Control. States that are planning HAI-reporting programs should standardize an efficient surveillance methodology that yields data capable of guiding interventions to prevent HAI.     

Estimating health care-associated infections and deaths in U.S. hospitals, 2002

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to provide a national estimate of the number of healthcare-associated infections (HAI) and deaths in United States hospitals. METHODS: No single source of nationally representative data on HAIs is currently available. The authors used a multi-step approach and three data sources. The main source of data was the National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance (NNIS) system, data from 1990-2002, conducted by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Data from the National Hospital Discharge Survey (for 2002) and the American Hospital Association Survey (for 2000) were used to supplement NNIS data. The percentage of patients with an HAI whose death was determined to be caused or associated with the HAI from NNIS data was used to estimate the number of deaths. RESULTS: In 2002, the estimated number of HAIs in U.S. hospitals, adjusted to include federal facilities, was approximately 1.7 million: 33,269 HAIs among newborns in high-risk nurseries, 19,059 among newborns in well-baby nurseries, 417,946 among adults and children in ICUs, and 1,266,851 among adults and children outside of ICUs. The estimated deaths associated with HAIs in U.S. hospitals were 98,987: of these, 35,967 were for pneumonia, 30,665 for bloodstream infections, 13,088 for urinary tract infections, 8,205 for surgical site infections, and 11,062 for infections of other sites. CONCLUSION: HAIs in hospitals are a significant cause of morbidity and mortality in the United States. The method described for estimating the number of HAIs makes the best use of existing data at the national level.     

Hospital-acquired infections in Italy: a region wide prevalence study

Between October and December 2000, a region-wide prevalence study of hospital-acquired infections (HAI) was conducted in all public hospitals (59 facilities with ca. 16000 beds; 560000 admission yearly) in Piemonte Region, Italy, and in the one hospital of the neighbouring autonomous region of Valle d'Aosta. The study population comprised a total of 9467 patients hospitalized for at least 24 h. The prevalence of HAI was 7.84%, with marked differences in prevalence among the participating hospitals (range: 0-47.8%). The higher relative frequency of urinary tract infections (UTI; 52.7%) was due to the inclusion of urine cultures obtained on the day of the study from asymptomatic UTI in catheterized patients. A significant correlation was found with major risk factors related to medical procedures (urinary catheter, mechanical ventilation, surgical drainage, intravascular catheters). Patients with HAI were found to be older and to have a greater mean length of stay in hospital. Multiple logistic regression analyses showed that lack of independence, indwelling urinary catheter and mechanical ventilation were the risk factors more significantly associated with HAI. The use of antibiotics, in particular prophylactic agents used in surgery (cephalosporins, glycopeptides), provided an incentive for corrective intervention in antibiotic administration and in training of healthcare workers.     

Hospital infection surveillance in 5 Roman intensive care units

The A.A. carried out a survey on hospital acquired infection (HAI) in the intensive care units (ICU) of five roman hospitals. The study monitored the following site-specific infection rates: pneumonia (PNE), blood stream infections (BSI), urinary tract infections (UTI), surgical site infections (SSI). According to CDC definitions all patients developing infection 48 hours or more after ward admission were included. Furthermore risk factors (i.e. age, sex, SAPS II), invasive procedures (i.e. endotracheal intubation, vascular and urinary catheterisation), microbiological isolates and their antibiotic susceptibility were screened. The overall 503 patients characteristics (i.e., age, length of stay, case-mix...) showed the wards as general ICU's. Although the SAPS II score was similar, mortality (18.2%-42.9%) and general infection rates (15.4%-40.4%) among the five ICU's were considerably variable (p < 0.05), as HAI episodes distribution by type: PNE (37-88%), BSI (6-42%), UTI (6-24%), SSI (3-7%) (p < 0.05). Also device-associated infection rates such as Ventilator-associated PNE (11.6-24.6@1000), Vascular catheter-associated BSI (3.4-19.2@1000). Urinary catheter-associated UTI (2.6-14.0@1000) and invasive procedures management were different. Among the infected patients the most commonly isolated microorganisms were P. aeruginosa and Staphylococcus spp., which presented a considerable antibiotic resistance. The study showed: 1) sampling (i.e. blood cultures, tracheal aspirate and urine samples) and laboratory methodology indispensable for a correct HAI diagnosis were not standardized in the five ICU's; 2) hospital infection control policy was not carried out in all ICU's. The study showed a lack of standardization which limits the comparability of the general roman ICU's.     

Prevalence of hospital-acquired infection in a Tunisian hospital

In order to estimate the prevalence of hospital-acquired infection (HAI) and research factors associated with its occurrence, a one-day prevalence survey was conducted at the Habib Bourguiba University Hospital, Tunisia. We studied 280 patients who had been present in the same ward for at least 48 h, and who had occupied a hospital bed between 17 April 2002 (midnight) and 18 April 2002 (midnight). The overall prevalence of HAI was 17.9%. The most frequently infected sites were the lungs (32%), surgical wounds (28%) and the urinary tract (20%). Microbiological documentation was available in only 28% of HAIs, and the most frequently isolated organisms were Gram-negative rods (80.8%). Results of multiple logistic regression analysis indicated that HAI is linked to the medical category, the use of intravascular devices and antibiotic prophylaxis. This survey provided information on the prevalence of HAI in Tunisian hospitals, the breakdown of infections, and HAI predisposing factors.     

Prevalence study of hospital-acquired infections in 14 Greek hospitals: planning from the local to the national surveillance level

A prevalence study of hospital-acquired infections (HAI) was carried out in 14 of 112 Greek hospitals (15.7%), scattered throughout Greece. Five of seven Greek university hospitals and nine regional hospitals participated in the one-day study, and 3925 hospitalized patients (10.5% of the total hospital beds in Greece) were recorded. The aim of this project was to organize a surveillance of HAI with the participation of the greatest possible number of Greek hospitals, transferring the experience from the local Cretan infection control network in an effort to create a nationwide network. Special attention was paid to recruit all Greek university hospitals in our attempt to expand the study base. Co-ordination of the participating centres, education of the infection control teams on surveillance methods, preparation of agreed definitions, and elaboration of the protocol for the collection of the data were the major objectives of this study. The difficulties, however, were limited resources and the lack of skilled personnel. The overall prevalence of HAI was found to be 9.3%. The most common HAI recorded involved lower respiratory tract infections (30.3%), followed by urinary tract infections (22.7%), bloodstream infections (15.8%), and surgical site infections (14.8%). The greatest prevalence rate was found in the adult ICU (48.4%), followed by the neonatal ICU (30.3%). The duration of hospitalization, the number of operations, the total number of used devices and invasive procedures were significantly correlated with HAI. Positive cultures were found in 51.5% of the cases. The most frequently isolated micro-organisms were: Pseudomonas aeruginosa (16.6%), Escherichia coli (10.8%), Klebsiella pneumoniae (10.3%), Staphylococcus epidermidis (8.1%) and Staphylococcus aureus (7.6%). The administration of antibiotics was also recorded. The prevalence of antibiotic use was 51.4%.     

ICU导管相关性感染目标性监测分析

目的了解某院重症监护病房(ICU)医院感染发生情况,尤其是导管相关性感染基线数据,为干预措施的制定提供参考。方法采用前瞻性调查方法对2010年6月-2011年12月入住ICU患者的医院感染发生情况进行目标性监测,并对侵入性操作使用率与相关医院感染发生率进行分析。结果调查期间共监测2741例ICU患者,发生感染198例、307例次,感染率为7.22%、例次感染率为11.20%;同期ICU住院总日数9666d,日感染率为20.48‰,例次日感染率为31.76‰;经ASIS调整后的日感染率为6.86‰,日感染例次率为10.64‰;导尿管、中心静脉插管及呼吸机的使用率分别为96.39%、58.66%和50.77%,使用导管所致相关泌尿道、血流感染和呼吸机相关性肺炎分别为3.11‰、5.47‰和20.58‰。结论 ICU医院感染发病率和导管相关性感染率较高,必须制定相应感染控制预防措施,使其相应的感染得到有效控制。     

Hospital-acquired infections in Belgian acute-care hospitals: an estimation of their global impact on mortality, length of stay and healthcare costs

Assessing the overall burden of disease which can be attributed to hospital-acquired infections (HAIs) remains a challenge. A matched cohort study was performed to estimate excess mortality, length of stay and costs attributable to HAIs in Belgian acute-care hospitals, using six matching factors (hospital, diagnosis-related group, age, ward, Charlson score, estimated length of stay prior to infection). Information was combined from different sources on the epidemiology and burden of HAIs to estimate the impact at national level. The total number of patients affected by a HAI each year was 125 000 (per 10·9 million inhabitants). The excess mortality was 2·8% and excess length of stay was 7·3 days, corresponding to a public healthcare cost of €290 million. A large burden was observed outside the intensive-care unit setting (87% of patients infected and extra costs, 73% of excess deaths).