Estimated burden of paediatric obesity and co-morbidities in Europe. Part 1. The increase in the prevalence of child obesity in Europe is itself increasing.

OBJECTIVES: Surveys have shown the prevalence of overweight among school age children to be as high as 35% in parts of Europe, and several countries have reported prevalence rates increasing year-on-year. The purpose of the present paper is to review the rate of change in prevalence of overweight and obesity among children in the European region. METHODS: A search of published and unpublished surveys was undertaken to find pairs of surveys that could indicate rates of change of prevalence within comparable population groups using comparable measures. Data from 45 pairs of surveys from 11 countries were analysed. RESULTS: Annual increases in prevalence of overweight (including obesity) rose from typically below 0.5 percentage points in the 1980s, to over 1.0 percentage points in the late 1990s. For obesity alone, the annual increase in prevalence was typically below 0.1 percentage points in the 1980s and typically 0.3 percentage points in the late 1990s. CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of overweight and obesity among children is rising in the European region, and the annualised rates of increase are themselves increasing. Unless action is taken to counteract these trends, by the year 2010 the European Union can expect to see the numbers of overweight and obese children rising by approximately 1.3 million children per year, of which the numbers of obese children will be rising by over 0.3 million per year.     

Obesity: a growing problem

Obesity, defined as a body mass index (BMI) of 30 kg/m2 or more, is common in many parts of the world, especially in the established market economies, the former socialist economies of Europe, Latin America, the Caribbean and the Middle Eastern Crescent. As many as 250 million people worldwide may be obese (7% of the adult population) and two to three times as many may be considered overweight. The prevalence of obesity seems to be increasing in most parts of the world, even where it used to be rare. Increased fatness, measured by a high BMI, a large waist circumference or a high waist/hip circumference ratio, is associated with many chronic diseases as well as with poor physical functioning. Assessments of the prevalence of obesity, and trends in this prevalence over time, are more difficult in children than adults, due to the lack of international criteria for classifying individuals as overweight or obese. The World Health Organization has now recommended the use of BMI-for-age percentiles, but the reference curves are still under development. France. The Netherlands, the UK and the USA are among the countries that have reported recent increases in the prevalence of obesity in children and adolescents. Although there are no accurate estimates of the components of energy balance and their changes over time, the available evidence suggests that the trends in obesity rates are related more to a reduction in energy expenditure than to an increase in caloric intake. Prevention of obesity through the promotion of a healthy lifestyle is among the important challenges for the new millennium, and should start in childhood.     

Prevalence and trends of obesity in children and adults of South Europe

Obesity is an epidemic phenomenon in both developed and developing societies. In the majority of South European countries, obesity prevalence is high among children and adolescents while, in adults, epidemic proportions are found in Greece, Portugal and the Southern areas of Spain and Italy, with particular prevalence of abdominal obesity. Secular trends also show increasing rates during the last 20 years mostly among young children and among males in adulthood. In some countries such as Spain and Greece, nutrition transition contributed largely to the increase of obesity prevalence. Other particular predisposing factors are sedentary behaviours, variations of socio-economic status and probably the warm climate. Genetic factors could also play a role. Preventive and treatment strategies are urgently needed to stop the obesity epidemic in children of Southern European countries.     

Obesity: a growing problem

Seidell JC. Obesity: a growing problem. Acta Pædiatr 1999; Suppl 428: 46–50. Stockholm. ISSN 0803–5326
Obesity, defined as a body mass index (BMI) of 30 kg/m² or more, is common in many parts of the world, especially in the established market economies, the former socialist economies of Europe, Latin America, the Caribbean and the Middle Eastern Crescent. As many as 250 million people worldwide may be obese (7% of the adult population) and two to three times as many may be considered overweight. The prevalence of obesity seems to be increasing in most parts of the world, even where it used to be rare. Increased fatness, measured by a high BMI, a large waist circumference or a high waist/hip circumference ratio, is associated with many chronic diseases as well as with poor physical functioning. Assessments of the prevalence of obesity, and trends in this prevalence over time, are more difficult in children than adults, due to the lack of international criteria for classifying individuals as overweight or obese. The World Health Organization has now recommended the use of BMI-for-age percentiles, but the reference curves are still under development. France, The Netherlands, the UK and the USA are among the countries that have reported recent increases in the prevalence of obesity in children and adolescents. Although there are no accurate estimates of the components of energy balance and their changes over time, the available evidence suggests that the trends in obesity rates are related more to a reduction in energy expenditure than to an increase in caloric intake. Prevention of obesity through the promotion of a healthy lifestyle is among the important challenges for the new millennium, and should start in childhood, □ Adolescents, children, epidemiology, obesity, overweight     

Worldwide trends in childhood overweight and obesity.

OBJECTIVES: Obesity has become a global epidemic but our understanding of the problem in children is limited due to lack of comparable representative data from different countries, and varying criteria for defining obesity. This paper summarises the available information on recent trends in child overweight and obesity prevalence. METHODS: PubMed was searched for data relating to trends over time, in papers published between January 1980 and October 2005. Additional studies identified by citations in retrieved papers and by consultation with experts were included. Data for trends over time were found for school-age populations in 25 countries and for pre-school populations in 42 countries. Using these reports, and data collected for the World Health Organization's Burden of Disease Program, we estimated the global prevalence of overweight and obesity among school-age children for 2006 and likely prevalence levels for 2010. RESULTS: The prevalence of childhood overweight has increased in almost all countries for which data are available. Exceptions are found among school-age children in Russia and to some extent Poland during the 1990s. Exceptions are also found among infant and pre-school children in some lower-income countries. Obesity and overweight has increased more dramatically in economically developed countries and in urbanized populations. CONCLUSIONS: There is a growing global childhood obesity epidemic, with a large variation in secular trends across countries. Effective programs and policies are needed at global, regional and national levels to limit the problem among children.     

Action, prevention and epidemiology of paediatric obesity

The overall aim of this paper is to describe important issues regarding paediatric obesity as a public health problem. This paper focuses on actions taken, and on the prevalence of obesity in children, teens and adults in Denmark. In addition, the paper describes some important prevention studies, all of which are performed outside Denmark. Thus, this paper is not a classical review but rather a highlight of some aspects that the author finds important. The latest Danish national figures show a marked increase in the prevalence of obesity, especially among young men—a sevenfold increase from 1987 to 2000 (0.7 to 4.9%). Among young women aged 16–24, the increase is threefold in the same period. Among teens, the prevalence has increased by 2–3 times in recent decades. Nevertheless, compared to other European countries and the US, Denmark has a relatively low prevalence of obesity in adolescents. The present paper also covers results from prevention studies performed in both preschool and school settings. Some of these focus on the reduced intake of carbonated drinks, whereas others focus on both diet and physical exercise. Finally, this paper demonstrates that Denmark is at the forefront regarding a national action plan against obesity.
Conclusion: This paper highlights some important aspects of the epidemiology, prevention and actions in the field of paediatric obesity with special focus on Denmark.     

Action, prevention and epidemiology of paediatric obesity

The overall aim of this paper is to describe important issues regarding paediatric obesity as a public health problem. This paper focuses on actions taken, and on the prevalence of obesity in children, teens and adults in Denmark. In addition, the paper describes some important prevention studies, all of which are performed outside Denmark. Thus, this paper is not a classical review but rather a highlight of some aspects that the author finds important. The latest Danish national figures show a marked increase in the prevalence of obesity, especially among young men-a sevenfold increase from 1987 to 2000 (0.7 to 4.9%). Among young women aged 16-24, the increase is threefold in the same period. Among teens, the prevalence has increased by 2-3 times in recent decades. Nevertheless, compared to other European countries and the US, Denmark has a relatively low prevalence of obesity in adolescents. The present paper also covers results from prevention studies performed in both preschool and school settings. Some of these focus on the reduced intake of carbonated drinks, whereas others focus on both diet and physical exercise. Finally, this paper demonstrates that Denmark is at the forefront regarding a national action plan against obesity. Conclusion: This paper highlights some important aspects of the epidemiology, prevention and actions in the field of paediatric obesity with special focus on Denmark.     

Dietitians and exercise professionals in a childhood obesity treatment team

There has been a remarkable increase in the prevalence of childhood obesity in most countries in recent years, which indicates that modern lifestyle is the triggering factor for genetic susceptibility. This report focuses on the two main environmental factors, nutrition and physical activity, that could influence paediatric obesity development, and how health professionals can address these aspects in the management of childhood obesity in a multidisciplinary treatment team. First, the role of a nutrition expert in the multidisciplinary obesity team is discussed and then the importance of physical activity in the treatment of paediatric obesity. The part on nutrition highlights some interesting areas in this field, namely glycaemic index, high-protein diet, fast foods, portion sizes and soft-drink consumption. Dietary treatment in childhood obesity should be combined with changes in physical activity to promote long-term weight loss. Research on the physical activity of children and adolescents indicates some significant changes over the last decades, which are also reviewed. Factors such as sports club participation and television viewing are discussed. The appropriate physical activity level and effective physical activity programmes are also presented. Physical activity can be promoted in childhood obesity treatment in many ways. Practical advice regarding physical activity programme and the role of exercise professionals in childhood obesity treatment team is given.
Conclusion: For successful obesity management, the child should be assessed and treated by a multidisciplinary team, including a physician, dietitian, exercise expert, nurse and behavioural therapist.     

Dietitians and exercise professionals in a childhood obesity treatment team

There has been a remarkable increase in the prevalence of childhood obesity in most countries in recent years, which indicates that modern lifestyle is the triggering factor for genetic susceptibility. This report focuses on the two main environmental factors, nutrition and physical activity, that could influence paediatric obesity development, and how health professionals can address these aspects in the management of childhood obesity in a multidisciplinary treatment team. First, the role of a nutrition expert in the multidisciplinary obesity team is discussed and then the importance of physical activity in the treatment of paediatric obesity. The part on nutrition highlights some interesting areas in this field, namely glycaemic index, high-protein diet, fast foods, portion sizes and soft-drink consumption. Dietary treatment in childhood obesity should be combined with changes in physical activity to promote long-term weight loss. Research on the physical activity of children and adolescents indicates some significant changes over the last decades, which are also reviewed. Factors such as sports club participation and television viewing are discussed. The appropriate physical activity level and effective physical activity programmes are also presented. Physical activity can be promoted in childhood obesity treatment in many ways. Practical advice regarding physical activity programme and the role of exercise professionals in childhood obesity treatment team is given. Conclusion: For successful obesity management, the child should be assessed and treated by a multidisciplinary team, including a physician, dietitian, exercise expert, nurse and behavioural therapist.     

Why young adults hold the key to assessing the obesity epidemic in children

Despite significant increases in prevalence rates of childhood obesity in the United States during the past 2 decades, rates of type 2 diabetes mellitus among children at the population level have not followed a similar trajectory as those in adults. In this review, hypotheses for the contrasting findings in children compared with adults are explored, as are possible links between the trends in childhood obesity rates and increases in type 2 diabetes among young adults in the United States. This review concludes with observations about the profound policy implications from current patterns of type 2 diabetes among youth and particularly young adults and a proposed research agenda regarding childhood obesity and type 2 diabetes risk over the life course.     

Paediatric obesities: from childhood to adolescence

Obesity, as in every western country, is currently the most prevalent chronic disease in childhood in Spain. This has led to obesity being one of the most common consultations in general paediatrics and, particularly, in paediatric endocrinology. Furthermore, obesity associated comorbidities are increasing in prevalence in children and adolescents. It is widely accepted that this increase in the prevalence of obesity is derived from an imbalance between energy intake and expenditure, associated to the lifestyle in western countries. However, there is increasing evidence of the role of individual and familial genetic background in the risk of developing obesity. The pathophysiological basis of the mechanisms responsible for the control of appetite and energy expenditure are being discovered on the basis of the increasing known cases of human monogenic, syndromic and endocrine obesity. Thus it is no longer appropriate to talk about obesity but rather about ?obesities?, as their pathophysiological bases differ and they require different diagnostic and management approaches. In 2011, the paediatrician must be aware of this issue and focus the clinical history and physical examination towards these specific clinical sign and symptoms, to better manage the available diagnostic and therapeutic resources when faced with a child with obesity.     

Demography of adolescent health care delivery and training in Europe

Background  We aimed to determine the status of and factors associated with adolescent health care delivery and training in Europe on behalf of the European Paediatric Association—UNEPSA. Materials and methods  A questionnaire was mailed to the presidents of 48 national paediatric societies in Europe. For statistical analyses, non-parametric tests were used as appropriate. Results  Six of the countries had a paediatric (PSPCA), 14 had a combined and nine had a general practitioner/family doctor system for the primary care of adolescents (GP/FDSA). Paediatricians served children 17 years of age or older in 15 and 17, up to 16 years of age in three and six, and up to 14 years of age in six and six countries in outpatient and inpatient settings, respectively. Fifteen and 18 of the countries had some kind of special inpatient wards and outpatient clinics for adolescents, respectively. Twenty-eight of the countries had some kind of national/governmental screening or/and preventive health programmes for adolescents. In countries with a PSPCA, the gross national income (GNI) per capita was significantly lower than in those with a GP/FDSA, and the mean upper age limit of adolescents was significantly higher than in those with the other systems. In the eastern part of Europe, the mortality rate of 10–14 year olds was significantly higher than that in the western part (p=0.008). Training in adolescent medicine was offered in pre-graduate education in 14 countries in the paediatric curriculum and in the context of paediatric residency and GP/family physician residency programmes in 18 and nine countries, respectively. Adolescent medicine was reported as a recognised subspecialty in 15 countries and as a certified subspecialty of paediatrics in one country. In countries with a PSPCA, paediatric residents were more likely to be educated in adolescent medicine than paediatric residents in countries with a GP/FDSA. Conclusion  The results of the present study show that there is a need for the reconstruction and standardisation of adolescent health care delivery and training in European countries. The European Paediatric Association—UNEPSA could play a key role in the implementation of the proposals suggested in this paper. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Reviewing and addressing the link between mass media and the increase in obesity among European children: The European Academy of Paediatrics (EAP) and The European Childhood Obesity Group (ECOG) consensus statement

This study reviewed the link between social media and the growing epidemic of childhood obesity in Europe. A task force from the European Academy of Paediatrics and the European Childhood Obesity Group searched published literature and developed a consensus statement. It found that there was evidence of a strong link between obesity levels across European countries and childhood media exposure and that parents and society needed a better understanding of the influence of social media on dietary habits. Conclusion. Health policies in Europe must take account of the range of social media influences that promote the development of childhood obesity.     

Childhood Obesity and the Metabolic Syndrome in Developing Countries

Rapidly changing dietary practices accompanied by an increasingly sedentary lifestyle predispose to nutrition-related non-communicable diseases, including childhood obesity. Over the last 5 y, reports from several developing countries indicate prevalence rates of obesity (inclusive of overweight) >15 % in children and adolescents aged 5–19 y; Mexico 41.8 %, Brazil 22.1 %, India 22.0 % and Argentina 19.3 %. Moreover, secular trends also indicate an alarming increase in obesity in developing countries; in Brazil from 4.1 % to 13.9 % between 1974 and 1997; in China from 6.4 % to 7.7 % between 1991 and 1997; and in India from 4.9 % to 6.6 % between 2003-04 to 2005–06. Other contributory factors to childhood obesity include: high socio-economic status, residence in metropolitan cities and female gender. Childhood obesity tracks into adulthood, thus increasing the risk for conditions like the metabolic syndrome, type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), polycystic ovarian syndrome, hypertension, dyslipidemia and coronary artery disease later in life. Interestingly, prevalence of the metabolic syndrome was 35.2 % among overweight Chinese adolescents. Presence of central obesity (high waist-to-hip circumference ratio) along with hypertriglyceridemia and family history of T2DM increase the odds of T2DM by 112.1 in young Asian Indians (< 40 y). Therapeutic lifestyle changes and maintenance of regular physical activity are most important strategies for preventing childhood obesity. Effective health awareness educational programs for children should be immediately initiated in developing countries, following the successful model program in India (project ‘MARG’).     

Prevention and treatment of overweight and obesity in children and adolescents

Increasing numbers of obese children and adolescents all over the world demand an investment in the primary and secondary prevention of obesity and overweight in this age group. The goal of preventive measures in children is to avoid the negative short- and long-term health problems associated with obesity. Primary prevention aims at establishing a healthy, active lifestyle and keeping children and adolescents within a range of body weight which is considered to be healthy. Constant availability and affordability of palatable and energy-dense food in the affluent society of the western world demands preventive strategies. Universal or public health prevention seems to be the most suitable form because several other cofactors of morbidity and mortality of affluent societies can also be prevented. However, in most European countries there is a lack of awareness of the necessity of prevention programmes, not only among the general population but also among the medical society. More awareness and consciousness to the problem of obesity must be generated in order to lead to effective therapeutic programmes. For those children and adolescents who are already obese, secondary prevention is mandatory. Therapeutic intervention programmes for the obese aim at long-term weight maintenance and normalisation of body weight and body fat. They have to modify eating and exercise behaviour of the obese child and establish new, healthier behaviour and lifestyle. Treatments programmes must include behavioural components in order to permanently change nutrition and physical exercise of the obese children and adolescents. However, long-term results of treatment programmes in European countries are scarce and the reported results, even of multidisciplinary regimens, are not impressive. Conclusion In most European countries there is an urgent need not only for a growing awareness of the problem of obesity in children and adolescents but also for development of new comprehensive approaches in treating this group.     

Prevention and treatment of overweight and obesity in children and adolescents

Increasing numbers of obese children and adolescents all over the world demand an investment in the primary and secondary prevention of obesity and overweight in this age group. The goal of preventive measures in children is to avoid the negative short- and long-term health problems associated with obesity. Primary prevention aims at establishing a healthy, active lifestyle and keeping children and adolescents within a range of body weight which is considered to be healthy. Constant availability and affordability of palatable and energy-dense food in the affluent society of the western world demands preventive strategies. Universal or public health prevention seems to be the most suitable form because several other cofactors of morbidity and mortality of affluent societies can also be prevented. However, in most European countries there is a lack of awareness of the necessity of prevention programmes, not only among the general population but also among the medical society. More awareness and consciousness to the problem of obesity must be generated in order to lead to effective therapeutic programmes. For those children and adolescents who are already obese, secondary prevention is mandatory. Therapeutic intervention programmes for the obese aim at long-term weight maintenance and normalisation of body weight and body fat. They have to modify eating and exercise behaviour of the obese child and establish new, healthier behaviour and lifestyle. Treatments programmes must include behavioural components in order to permanently change nutrition and physical exercise of the obese children and adolescents. However, long-term results of treatment programmes in European countries are scarce and the reported results, even of multidisciplinary regimens, are not impressive. CONCLUSION: In most European countries there is an urgent need not only for a growing awareness of the problem of obesity in children and adolescents but also for development of new comprehensive approaches in treating this group.     

Nouveaux enjeux de la recherche clinique en psychopharmacologie chez l’enfant et l’adolescent

A large proportion of medicines used in children are actually prescribed off-label, which can place children at a direct risk of under- or overdosing and a delayed risk of long-term adverse effects, and children have often been denied access to new or innovative medications. Many generations of paediatricians and other physicians have learned to live with the situation. But because such situation is nowadays considered as unethical, the need to obtain paediatric information for medicines used in children seems a matter of consensus on a global basis. If the therapeutic effects of amphetamines in hyperactive children were first described in 1937, thus, preceding the major discoveries of adult psychopharmacology, since this little innovation has occurred in paediatric psychopharmacology. However, it is widely recognized that mental disorders in children and adolescents lead to a major burden for them and for their families. Over the past decade, under the impulsion of the US paediatric legislation, the number of high quality paediatric psychopharmacological studies has dramatically increased. Like what happened in the US, it was clear in European Union, that there was a need for a legal obligation for Pharmaceutical Companies to perform studies in paediatric populations, and a new Paediatric European Regulation came into force in 2007, opening a new era in the history of European regulation with the ambition of improving the health of children and adolescents. Therefore drug development is changing; the concern of protecting children against clinical research fading away, a new paradigm is now emerging, i.e. protecting children through clinical research. In Europe, paediatric development is no longer an option but needs to be truly integrated in clinical development plans with paediatric evaluations being a regular part of every drug development process. It seems reasonable to anticipate that more research may occur as well in paediatric psychopharmacology and more studies will be enrolling paediatric patients all over the world in the forthcoming years. But paediatric clinical development is difficult and the hurdles of conducting clinical trials in paediatric population are numerous. This article presents briefly the new European Paediatric Regulation, illustrates its purpose through the example of antidepressants in children and adolescents, and discusses new research challenges in paediatric psychopharmacology. Ultimately, it is through well-conducted research that children will gain access to new medications and receive safe and optimal drug therapy.     

Underweight problems in Asian children and adolescents

Most reviews on weight status have focused on obesity, and little information on underweight children is available. This review aimed to examine the prevalence and trends of underweight status among Asian children and adolescent populations in the last two decades. A systematic review of publications between the years 1990 and 2010 was conducted. Underweight in children and adolescents was relatively more prevalent in the South and West Asian countries than in the East Asian countries. In general, underweight was more prevalent in boys within the South and West Asian countries, while it was more prevalent in girls within the East Asian countries. Increasing trends of prevalence of underweight were common among children and adolescents in South and West Asia. Specific public health policies should be formulated to combat the underweight problems in less-developed countries.     

The obesity phenotype in children with asthma

Asthma and obesity have been increasing in prevalence internationally among children. Evidence points to an association between these chronic morbidities, suggesting the development of an ‘obese asthma’ phenotype in childhood. This review summarises the evidence that the proinflammatory environment created by excess adiposity may provide a mechanism leading to obese asthma in children and adolescents. Weight loss studies conducted in children without asthma have demonstrated a reduction in systemic inflammation. However, the impact of weight loss in the obese paediatric population with asthma has not been investigated. The paucity of information highlights the need for high quality randomised controlled trials of weight loss in this population that include assessment of systemic and airway inflammation, and clinical asthma outcomes. This will lead to refinements in management approaches for these patients.     

Dysmetabolic syndrome in childhood and adolescence

The dysmetabolic syndrome, consisting of dyslipidaemia, hypertension, hyperinsulinaemia and central obesity, has been well recognized as a major risk for cardiovascular disease in adults. Although the clustering of cardiovascular risk factors has also been identified in childhood, the occurrence of full-blown dysmetabolic syndrome at younger ages has only recently been investigated. In this article we attempted an overview of the data for children and adolescents, focused on the mechanisms and natural history of the disease, the prevalence among paediatric populations, the assessment and the treatment approaches.

Conclusion: There is substantial evidence that the dysmetabolic syndrome has its origins in childhood. In the face of the epidemic increase of obesity in children and adolescents, the development of effective screening and preventive strategies would be a major challenge for paediatricians.