Post-stroke and vascular depression: a critical review

Increasing interest in depression within acute and chronic cerebrovascular pathology is justified for its clinical relevance. The scientific community strongly recommends taking into account its idendification and management in efforts to reduce disability, the caregiver's burden and the social-economic impact of cerebrovascular disease. Different approaches observed in the literature review make it difficult to generalize about the evidence concerning crucial clinical issues such as diagnostic criteria, impact on functional improvement, selection or timing of depression treatment. Furthermore, the relationship between cerebral lesion location and depression is not agreed, because both hemispheres are reported as prevailing in published case series. On the other hand, vascular depression is commonly related to diffuse subcortical involvement. Because of its clinical and social impact, a definition of the unclear features of depression within acute and chronic cerebrovascular disease is urgently needed. Received: 27 August 2001 / Accepted in revised form: 3 December 2001     

Toward a more precise,clinically—informed pathophysiology of pathological laughing and crying

Involuntary emotional expression disorder (IEED) includes the syndromes of pathological laughing and crying (PLC) and emotional lability (EL). Review of the lesion, epilepsy, and brain stimulation literature leads to an updated pathophysiology of IEED. A volitional system involving frontoparietal (primary motor, premotor, supplementary motor, posterior insular, dorsal anterior cingulate gyrus (ACG), primary sensory and related parietal) corticopontine projections inhibits an emotionally–controlled system involving frontotemporal (orbitofrontal, ventral ACG, anterior insular, inferior temporal, and parahippocampal) projections targeting the amygdala–hypothalamus–periaqueductal gray (PAG)–dorsal tegmentum (dTg) complex that regulates emotional displays. PAG activity is regulated by glutamatergic NMDA, muscarinic M1-3, GABA-A, dopamine D2, norepinephrine alpha-1,2, serotonin 5HT1a, 5HT1b/d, and sigma-1 receptors, with an acetylcholine/GABA balance mediating volitional inhibition of the PAG. Lesions of the volitional corticopontine projections (or of their feedback or processing circuits) can produce PLC. Direct activation of the emotional pathway can result in EL and the laughing or crying of gelastic and dacrystic epilepsy. A criterion-based nosology of PLC and EL subtypes is offered.     

Post-stroke depression: research methodology of a large multicentre observational study (DESTRO)

Abstract. The heterogeneity of published data regarding post-stroke depression (PSD) prompted an Italian multicenter observational study (DESTRO), which took place in 2000–2003. The investigation involved 53 Italian neurology centers: of these, 50 treat acute patients and 3 provide rehabilitation care; 21 centres are in Northern Italy, 20 are in Central Italy, and 12 are in Southern Italy. The time schedule was articulated into three phases: registration of 6289 stroke patients; selection of 1817 cases and enrolment of 1074 patients; and follow-up for two years (1064 patients). Mood assessment was performed by evaluating depressive symptoms according to DSM IV and the Beck depression inventory (visual analog mood scale for aphasic patients). Depressed patients were also administered the Montgomery-Asberg depression rating scale. Scores were related to function (Barthel index, modified Rankin scale), cognition (MMSE), quality of life (SF-36), and clinical data. Data analysis will provide information on PSD prevalence, onset and evolution, correlation with ischemic clinical syndrome, impact on activities of daily living, cognitive level and quality of life. The few data available at the present time concern PSD prevalence in the first six months after stroke (33.6%). DESTRO is a longitudinal investigation of a large patient sample and is expected to provide insights into the relationship of PDS with the functional and clinical consequences of stroke.* Participants in the DESTRO study include: G. Lagalla, M.G. Manicone, M. Del Gobbo, S. Paolini, Ancona; E. Bottacchi, G. Corso, Aosta; F. Federico, D. Martino, Bari; F. Salsa, E. Turinese, Bassano Del Grappa (VI); M. Gentile, S. Bogo, Belluno; M. Crisci, T. Sacquegna, Bologna; V. Santamato, G. Pietrarossa, Carbonara (BA); G. Coppola, G. Trianni, Casarano (LE); G. Pennisi, R. Bella, Catania; S. Ricci, K. Amantini, Città Della Pieve (PG); S. Buzzelli, L. Di Francesco, Città S. Angelo (PE); B. Antonelli, G. Pelliccia, Fermo (AP); E. Paolino, E. Iezzi, Ferrara; P. Nencini, C. Sarti, Florence; W. Neri, G. Galletti, Forli; S. Pretta, M. Del Sette, Genoa; E. Giaccaglini, C. Sconocchini, Iesi (AN); A. Carolei, C. Capannolo, LAquila; F.A. De Falco, R. Santangelo, Naples; R. Musolino, S. Gangemi, G. Vita, R. Di Leo, Messina; M. Comola, S. Mammi, M.A. Zamperetti, C.A. Defanti, S. Sommacal, G. Rudelli, Milan; V. Scarano, G. Coppola, Naples; M.T. Giordana, R. Sciolla, Orbassano (TO); G. Meneghetti, M. Ottina, Padua; A. Ponari, R. Castiglia, Palermo; D. Mancia, C. Zanferrari, Parma; G. Micieli, E. Zambrelli, Pavia; G. Cardaioli, V. Gallai, Perugia; R. Badino, T. Tassinari, Pietra Ligure (SV); G. Orlandi, S. Fanucchi, Pisa; G. Ciucci, G. Padoan, Ravenna; F. Gasparini, D. Guidetti, Reggio Emilia; D. De Angelis, G.A. Amabile, G. Fiermonte Rome; C. Roberti, A. Foti, Roma; L. Cainelli, M. Chiusole, Rovereto (TN); S. Pasqualino, D. Intiso, S. Giovanni Rotondo (FG); M. Tonizzo, A. Basile, S. Vito al Tagliamento (PN); P. Viviani, SantArsenio (SA); M.L. Stromillo, A. Federico, Siena; W. Liboni, E. Pavanelli, B. Bergamasco, P. Cerrato, A. Boghi, A. Cicolin, C. Berra, Turin; M. Zorzon, M.A. Tommasi, F. Chiodo Grandi, N. Koscica, Trieste; B. Micoli, R. Lorio, Venice; P. Bovi, G. Trabucco, Verona; D. Consoli, F. Galati, Vibo Valentia; F. Bortolon, M. Morra, Vicenza; V. Crespi, M. Braga, Vimercate (MI).     

脑梗死恢复期抑郁及相关因素分析

目的探讨脑梗死恢复期抑郁的发生情况及相关因素.方法采用汉密尔顿抑郁量表(HAMD)将87例初发脑梗死恢复期患者分为抑郁组和非抑郁组,分别行脑卒中神经功能缺损评分(SSS)和日常生活能力评定(ADL).结果在87例脑梗死恢复期患者中抑郁发生率为41.4%,抑郁组SSS评分明显高于非抑郁组(P＜0.01),抑郁组ADL评分低于非抑郁组(P＜0.01),而病灶数量、部位在2组中无显著性差异.结论抑郁是脑梗死患者恢复期常见的并发症,其发生与神经功能缺损严重程度、日常生活能力依赖程度有关.     

脑卒中后焦虑抑郁共病的临床初步研究

目的 了解脑卒中后焦虑抑郁共病（PSCAD）的发生率、相关因素及症状特点，寻找防治措施。方法 采用SAS、SDS量表对115例脑卒中病人进行测评，收集年龄、病程、性别、卒中次数、肌力等资料，对所获资料统计分析。结果 PSCAD的发生率为27．83％，病程、卒中次数、偏瘫程度等与PSCAD的发生相关。常见焦虑症状有不幸预感、睡眠障碍、乏力、焦虑等，抑郁症有能力减退、忧郁、易激惹、食欲减退等。结论 宜注重防治脑卒中，加强心理、家庭、社会支持，适当选用抗焦虑、抑郁药物治疗。     

首发脑卒中后抑郁相关因素的临床研究

目的研究生物、心理、社会因素与卒中后抑郁的关系。方法选择６２例单一首发病灶的脑卒中病人作为研究对象，用汉密顿抑郁量表、修订韦氏成人智力量表四合一简式、艾森克个性问卷（ＥＰＱ）、社会支持评定量表和老年抑郁量表作检测。结果１前部和皮质病灶抑郁分高于后部和皮质下；２抑郁与智力呈极显著负相关，与ＥＰＱＮ分、Ｐ分呈显著正相关；３多元回归分析发现生物、心理、社会因素均与卒中后抑郁有关。结论生物、心理、社会因素对脑卒中后抑郁的产生均有影响，临床医生应重视易患因素，早期治疗卒中后抑郁。     

Serotonin 5HT1A receptor availability and pathological crying after stroke

OBJECTIVES: Post-stroke depression and pathological crying (PC) implicate an imbalance of serotonergic neurotransmission. We claim that PC follows serotonin depletion that raises the binding potential (p(B)) of the 5-HT(1A) receptor antagonist [carbonyl-(11)C]WAY-100635, which is reversible by selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitor (SSRI) treatment. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We PET scanned patients with acute stroke and PC and age-matched control subjects. Maps of receptor availability were generated from the images of eight cortical regions and raphe nuclei. RESULTS: The maps showed highest binding in limbic areas and raphe nuclei, while binding in basal ganglia and cerebellum was negligible. Baseline binding potentials of patients were lower than that of control subjects (3.7 +/- 0.6 vs 4.2 +/- 0.2). Treatment with SSRI markedly reduced free receptor sites, whereas placebo administration led to a global increase. DISCUSSION: The study is the first suggestion of changes of serotonergic neurotransmission in the early phase of stroke and the modulation of these changes with SSRI treatment.     

卒中后抑郁及其治疗对神经功能康复的影响

目的　观察卒中后抑郁(PSD)的发生率和相关因素;探讨百优解抗抑郁治疗对卒中后抑郁患者神经功能康复的影响。方法　选取急性脑卒中患者132例(脑梗死78例,脑出血54 例),分别在病程2周、1月、3月、6月、12月行PSD诊断、神经功能缺损评分(SSS)、日常生活能力评分(ADL)、汉密尔顿抑郁量表( HAMD)评分,同时完成Zung’s 抑郁自评量表( SDS)和焦虑自评量表( SAS)。结果　(1)脑卒中患者中约44.70%出现抑郁症状;(2)卒中类型和性别与PSD发生率无相关性(P>0.05);(3)PSD的发生率和严重程度与神经功能缺损和日常生活能力下降程度有关。(4)PSD与病变部位、病灶大小、病灶半球利性均无相关性(P >0.05);(5)百优解能明显改善病程3、6 月时神经功能缺损,病程12月时不仅抑郁症状减轻,日常生活能力改善,神经功能缺损减轻尤为显著。结论　卒中后抑郁是急性脑血管病患者常见的长期并发症,并可影响患者神经功能康复的速度和程度。抗抑郁治疗能在抑郁症状明显改善的同时,促进患者神经功能和日常生活能力的恢复。     

卒中后抑郁的影像学研究进展

卒中后抑郁（post-stroke depression,PSD）是卒中后的常见并发症,不仅影响卒中患者的精神和神经功能恢复,甚至会增加患者的致残率和死亡率。常规影像学在PSD的相关解剖学部位与边缘系统-前额叶皮层-纹状体-苍白球-丘脑神经解剖环路假说的确立和巩固方面具有重要作用,但并不能对PSD进行早期的预测,功能磁共振在PSD的早期识别上具有优势,为PSD的研究提供了支持。     

卒中后抑郁的筛查及相关因素分析

目的 探讨卒中后抑郁的发生率及影响因素.方法 选择2008年7月～2009年4月在天津医科大学总医院神经内科卒中单元收治的158例脑卒中急性期患者为观察对象,登记患者基本信息.发病2w、3m、6m后予HAMD量表评分观察预后.结果 卒中后抑郁在发病14d时发生率为45.6%,3m后50.0%,6m后48.9%,以轻中度抑郁为主,发病6m时重度抑郁出现.女性、年龄在40-50岁之间、文化程度在大专或大专以上、自评性格为内向急躁、月人均收入在500元以下、周工作时间在51-60h有PSD高发趋势,但差异无统计学意义(P＞0.05).结论 卒中后抑郁发生率3m达峰,发病人群随时间变化,女性、年龄在40-50岁之间、高文化程度、自评性格为内向急躁、低收入、高工作强度患者可能有卒中后抑郁高发趋势.     

卒中单元护理模式对卒中后抑郁患者疗效的影响

目的 探讨卒中单元护理模式对卒中后抑郁患者的影响。方法 将52例卒中后抑郁患者,随机分为治疗组和对照组,对所有患者均进行常规护理和常规治疗,治疗组在此基础上加用卒中单元护理模式,对两组患者的神经功能和精神状态进行对照研究。结果 按照卒中单元护理模式进行护理干预的患者汉密尔顿抑郁量表（Hamilton Rating Scale forDepression,HRSD）评分、Barthel指数（Barthel index,BI）和神经功能改良Rankin量表（The ModifiedRankin Scales,mRS）评分较常规护理组得到明显改善（P <0.01）。结论 对卒中后抑郁的患者,早期实施卒中单元模式护理,是减轻患者的抑郁情绪、提高康复效果的有效护理方法。     

Influence of mastery and sexual frequency on depression in Korean men after a stroke

Background

Post-stroke depression has negative impacts on rehabilitation. The physical deficits following stroke have been well studied, but there is little information on sexual behavior, mastery, and depression in stroke patients.

Objective

The purpose of the study was to investigate the influence of sexual frequency and the sense of control on depression in Korean men after stroke.

Method

The sample for this study was a convenience sample of 67 Korean men after stroke visiting the convalescent center for disabled people in Seoul, Korea. Participants completed a Sexual Frequency scale, the mastery scale, and the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression (CES-D) test.

Results

Seventy-eight percent of the subjects were depressed. Sense of control and sexual frequency contributed to depression. Scores on sense of control and sexual frequency accounted for 39.5% of the variance in the depression score.

Conclusions

Results indicate that an intervention for depression management after stroke should take into account sexual relationships with their partners and a sense of control.     

Post-stroke Fatigue is an Independent Predictor of Post-stroke Disability and Burden of Care: A Path analysis Study

Post-stroke fatigue (PSF) is a common and one of the most distressing symptoms in stroke survivors. However, little is known about the relationship between severity of fatigue and the overall impact it has on post-stroke disability and burden of care. We aimed to examine the role of PSF in post-stroke disability and burden of care among stroke survivors after their first-ever stroke.

Methods: We prospectively recruited 163 subjects (35 females) from patients examined consecutively in a tertiary stroke care center in India, after their first-ever ischemic or hemorrhagic stroke (>3 months after event). In addition to demographic and clinical characteristics, the following assessments were done – SF-36 vitality domain (fatigue), Modified Rankin Scale (functional recovery), Hospital anxiety and depression scale (depression), Functional independence measure (disability and burden of care). We used path analysis to identify a model that will capture the interactions of fatigue, depression, and degree of functional recovery in stroke survivors.

Results: The severity of PSF positively correlated with the severity of disability and PSF had significant contribution to disability over and above functional recovery and depression, with all three factors accounting for 43% of the variance. Among the four models that were proposed to explore these relationships, the best fitting model showed that the effect of PSF is mediated through both the direct effect of fatigue on disability and through its interaction with depression, which remained a separate contributor to post-stroke disability and burden of care.

Conclusions: PSF, therefore, is an important determinant of post-stroke disability and should be evaluated for successful post-stroke rehabilitation.     

Pre-stroke sleep duration and post-stroke depression

ObjectiveSleep disturbance and depression are common in stroke patients, however, little is known about the role of sleep in post-stroke depression. This study examined the association between pre-stroke sleep duration and depression at 90 days post-stroke in a population-based bi-ethnic sample.MethodsThe study included 1369 stroke patients from the Brain Attack Surveillance in Corpus Christi project who survived 90 days post-stroke. Depression at 90 days post-stroke was assessed by the 8-item Patient Health Questionnaire, and pre-stroke sleep duration was self-reported shortly after stroke in reference to the pre-stroke state. Multiple imputation and inverse probability weighting were used to deal with missing data and attrition. Weighted logistic regression models were fit to examine the association between pre-stroke sleep duration and post-stroke depression.ResultsThe mean age was 68.2 years, and 63.6% were Mexican American. The prevalence of post-stroke depression was highest among participants reporting less than 6 hours of sleep before stroke (52.4%, 95% confidence interval = 45.7%–59.0%). Compared with participants reporting 7–8 hours of sleep before stroke, those with short sleep duration had significantly increased odds for post-stroke depression (odds ratio = 1.96; 95% confidence interval = 1.38–2.79), after adjustment for sociodemographic, stroke and pre-stroke characteristics including pre-stroke depression.ConclusionsPre-stroke short sleep duration may be an independent risk factor for post-stroke depression.     

脑卒中后抑郁及相关因素影响

目的:了解中风后抑郁(PSD)的发生率和中风病变部位、病程长短的关系以及对今后日常生活能力(ADL)恢复的影响。方法:按CCMD-Ⅱ-R的抑郁诊断标准对80例脑卒中病人分为抑郁组、非抑郁组进行研究。结果:80例脑卒中病人抑郁症状24例,发生率30%,左半球PSD发生率高,为3448%,左右侧对比有显著意义(P<005)。PSD与ADL呈显著负相关(P<005)。结论PSD与脑卒中病变程度密切相关 ,与病程无关 ;PSD明显影响病人的生存质量和功能恢复     

Stress and depression scales in aphasia: relation between the aphasia depression rating scale,stroke aphasia depression questionnaire-10, and the perceived stress scale

Background: Assessment and diagnosis of post-stroke depression (PSD) among patients with aphasia presents unique challenges. A gold standard assessment of PSD among this population has yet to be identified.

Objectives: The first aim was to investigate the association between two depression scales developed for assessing depressive symptoms among patients with aphasia. The second aim was to evaluate the relation between these scales and a measure of perceived stress.

Method: Twenty-five (16 male; 9 female) individuals with history of left hemisphere cerebrovascular accident (CVA) were assessed for depression and perceived stress using the Stroke Aphasic Depression Questionnaire-10 (SADQ-10), the Aphasia Depression Rating Scale (ADRS), and the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS).

Results: SADQ-10 and ADRS ratings were strongly correlated with each other (r = 0.708, p < 0.001). SADQ-10 ratings were strongly correlated with PSS ratings (r = 0.620, p = 0.003), while ADRS ratings were moderately correlated (r = 0.492, p = 0.027). Item analysis of each scale identified items which increased both inter-scale correlation and intra-scale consistency when excluded.

Conclusions: The SADQ-10 and ADRS appear to be acceptable measures of depressive symptoms in aphasia patients. Measurements of perceived stress may also be an important factor in assessment of depressive symptoms.     

急性脑卒中后抑郁焦虑的发生率及相关因素研究

目的 探讨急性脑卒中后抑郁、焦虑症状的发生率及相关因素。方法 采用SDS和SAS对389例急性脑卒中患者进行量表自评。结果 抑郁症状的发生率为39.6％、焦虑症状的发生率为41.6％,分析发现抑郁症状的发生与左侧大脑半球病变、病程>1个月及SAS评分高有关;而焦虑症状的发生则与左侧大脑半球病变、病程≤1个月及SDS评分高有关。结论 急性脑卒中患者存在明显的负性情绪障碍,应及早诊断和处理,以促进病人全面康复。     

神经反馈在卒中后抑郁和焦虑中应用的研究进展

卒中后情绪障碍发生率很高,严重的抑郁、焦虑对于患者的治疗、康复有着不同程度的消 极影响。神经反馈技术是通过对脑电参数的适应性训练,从而改善患者的情绪症状。目前应用神经 反馈干预卒中后抑郁、焦虑的研究相对较少,且对于干预脑区及脑波尚无统一定论。本文将对神经 反馈在卒中后抑郁、焦虑方面的应用加以综述。     

Comparison of assessment measures for post-stroke depression

Depression is commonplace following stroke and is associated with increased morbidity and mortality. The objective of this study is to examine the sensitivity and specificity of four standardized measures for assessing depression in a stroke population. A total of 67 adults admitted to an inpatient rehabilitation unit with acute stroke were assessed with four standardized depression measures and by structured clinical interview as part of a cross-sectional study assessing cognitive and emotional functioning. Using DSM-IV criteria, major depression was present in 15% of the sample and minor depression in an additional 28%. The four depression measures yielded rates of depression ranging from 14% to 46% when their recommended clinical threshold scores were applied. The Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) had the greatest positive predictive value (PPV) at 28%. Cutoff scores were adjusted using receiver operating curve (ROC) analyses, and PPV ranged from 28% to 34% when using lower cutoff scores, representing an improvement for all measures. Common assessment measures yield significantly different classification rates for depression in persons with acute stroke. Traditional threshold scores for commonly used objective depression measures may not be optimally sensitive for detection of depression in stroke populations. Based on the findings of this study we recommend clinicians use the Geriatric Depression Scale-Short Form using a cutoff score of 3 or greater. Clinical and research implications are offered.     

脑卒中后抑郁临床研究进展

脑卒中后抑郁是影响脑卒中患者生存和功能恢复的严重并发症,患病率约30%,多发生于脑卒中1年内,尤其是脑卒中3个月内。其危险因素主要包括脑卒中后病残、脑卒中前抑郁病史、脑卒中严重程度、认知功能障碍和焦虑症状等。治疗方法主要有药物治疗、心理治疗、康复治疗和物理治疗等,其中康复治疗可以显著减少脑卒中后抑郁发生率,改善预后。进一步深入研究脑卒中后抑郁发生机制、优化康复治疗方案,对改善预后具有重要意义。