Management of osteomyelitis

Early diagnosis and aggressive treatment, which includes thorough debridement and culture-directed antibiotic therapy, are essential for effective management of patients with osteomyelitis. Definitive diagnosis of osteomyelitis usually requires microbial culture of bone specimens obtained either by surgery or by percutaneous needle biopsy. The most common pathogen involved in osteomyelitis is Staphylococcus aureus; however, other organisms, including gram-negative pathogens and coagulase-negative staphylococci, may be found. Often, bone infections may be polymicrobial. Antimicrobial therapy, ideally initiated after complete surgical debridement and microbial confirmation of the diagnosis, is usually maintained for at least 6 weeks. Although therapy has traditionally been administered parenterally during an extended hospital stay, oral antibiotic therapy (often following initial parenteral therapy) and parenteral therapy on an outpatient basis are gaining acceptance for use in patients with osteomyelitis.     

Ostéite chronique de l’adulte. Diagnostic et prise en charge

ObjectiveUpdate on the diagnostic procedures and management of chronic osteomyelitis in adults.MethodsThis update was produced from articles and reviews of the literature and our experience in this field.PathogenesisOsteomyelitis in adults is mostly observed after trauma or bone surgery and can be associated with foreign-body implants. Chronic evolution and relapses are due to local factors (vascular insufficiency, presence of a foreign-body, persistence of bone sequestra…), host factors (diabetes, drepanocytosis…) and microbial factors (adhesion, synthesis of biofilm, development od small colony variants, resistance to antibiotics…).DiagnosisClinical manifestations include bone pain and/or local swelling, a fistula; fever is rarely observed in chronic osteomyelitis. Computer tomography and magnetic resonance imaging are needed to evaluate the extension of the lesions and guide the surgical treatment. The most important part of the diagnosis is to isolate the offending organism(s). Multiple intraoperative tissue specimens must be taken and cultured for prolonged times in enriched media.TreatmentA multidisciplinary approach is needed for the management of these infections. Surgical treatment consists of extensive debridment, removal of foreign material, dead bone and infected tissues. Antimicrobial therapy should associate antibiotics with good bone penetration that are active against the isolated microorganism(s), and well tolerated by the patient. High dose combination intravenous therapy is often needed during the first weeks of treatment.     

Current concepts in the management of infections in bones and joints

Significant changes have taken place in the epidemiology, microbiology and antibiotic therapy of bone and joint infections. Gram-negative bacilli have become an increasingly common cause, particularly in immunocompromised patients; anaerobes have been implicated in osteomyelitis associated with metallic foreign bodies; and there is increasing use of oral antibiotic regimens following an initial period of parenteral treatment. Gram-negative bacilli and anaerobes are found in polymicrobial non-haematogenous osteomyelitis (e.g. post-traumatic, post-surgical), but Staphylococcus aureus remains the most common cause of acute haematogenous osteomyelitis, with streptococci and Haemophilus influenzae responsible for most of the remainder. A precise microbiological diagnosis is essential. Diagnosis is based on Gram stain and culture of bone biopsies or aspirated pus, or on blood cultures. Specimens should be obtained before starting therapy. Any suspected primary foci of infection should be cultured. Parenteral antibiotics are given as soon as specimens are obtained, and continued for at least 3 weeks. The common causative organisms in septic arthritis are the same as in osteomyelitis, with the addition of Neisseria gonorrhoeae in young, sexually active adults. As in osteomyelitis, a precise microbiological diagnosis is of paramount importance, ideally by joint aspiration for cell count, Gram stain, biochemical analysis and culture, or by blood cultures. Optimum therapy is with antibiotics, repeated therapeutic aspirations, and resting the joint. Parenteral antibiotics should be started as soon as specimens are obtained and continued for 4 to 6 weeks. Gonococcal arthritis, however, can be treated successfully with 1 week of antibiotics. When treatment of either osteomyelitis or septic arthritis is continued with oral antibiotics, serum antibiotic concentrations or serum bactericidal levels are mandatory to ensure adequate absorption.     

Bacterial arthritis in the elderly: an overview

The key to successful treatment of acute bacterial arthritis is early diagnosis and initiation of empirical antibacterial therapy. Treatment includes antimicrobial therapy, debridement of the infected joint and treatment of pain. Empirical antibacterial treatment should be re-evaluated as soon as the causative pathogen is identified from joint fluid and other cultures. Mobilisation with partial weight bearing is encouraged early during treatment. The outcome of properly treated bacterial arthritis in the elderly is generally favourable and at least 50% of patients may recover without developing secondary osteoarthritis.     

手术联合庆大霉素滴注引流法治疗慢性骨髓炎的临床体会

目的观察手术联合庆大霉素滴注引流法治疗慢性骨髓炎的临床治疗效果。方法对27例慢性骨髓炎行病灶清除，应用庆大霉素溶液缓慢灌洗，根据细菌培养和药物敏感试验结果选用抗生素全身用药。结果随访15个月～10年．近期及远期效果良好，2例植骨术后炎症复发，经灌洗，骨髓炎被控制，1例内踝骨髓炎分泌物时间较长，经清创钻孔、换药治愈。结论彻底清除炎性病灶是治愈慢性骨髓炎的关键措施，消除死腔、死骨、引流通畅，保持局部有效的药物浓度，保持局部成骨活性，防止并发症的发生是治疗慢性骨髓炎的有效方法。     

Bacteroides fragilis: current susceptibilities, mechanisms of drug resistance, and principles of antimicrobial therapy

The Bacteroides fragilis group of organisms includes the most clinically important anaerobic bacteria. Optimal therapy of infections in which these organisms are involved includes adequate and timely surgical drainage of all collections, debridement of necrotic tissue, optimal nutritional support, and administration of appropriate empiric antibiotics to cover both the aerobic and anaerobic bacterial components of these mixed infections. Special attention must be paid to the B. fragilis group because of its high rate of resistance to many of the commonly used antibiotics. Of the currently available beta-lactam antibiotics, piperacillin has the lowest rate of resistance. Successful antimicrobial agents include clindamycin, chloramphenicol, and metronidazole plus an aminoglycoside. Piperacillin, cefoxitin, and moxalactam can be used with an aminoglycoside or alone if no resistant organisms are revealed on culture and susceptibility testing. Beta-lactam-based regimens are potentially less toxic and may be less costly than those that contain one or more non-beta-lactam antibiotics.     

Optimal treatment of infected diabetic foot ulcers

Foot ulceration can lead to devastating consequences in diabetic patients. They are not only associated with increased morbidity but also mortality. Foot infections result as a consequence of foot ulceration, which can occasionally lead to deep tissue infections and osteomyelitis; both of which can result in loss of limb. To prevent amputations prompt diagnosis and treatment is required. Understanding the pathology of the diabetic foot will help in the planning of appropriate investigations and treatment. Clinical diagnosis of infection is based on the presence of discharge from the ulcer, cellulitis, warmth and signs of toxicity; though the latter is uncommon. Deep tissue samples from the ulcer and/or blood cultures should be taken before, but without delaying the start of antibacterial treatment in limb and life-threatening infections. In milder infections wound sampling may direct appropriate antibacterial treatment. Staphylococcus aureus, followed by streptococci are the most common organisms causing infection and antibacterial treatment should be targeted against these organisms in mild infection possibly with monotherapy. But in serious infections combination therapy is required because these are usually caused by multiple organisms including anaerobes. Drug-resistant organisms are becoming more prevalent and methicillin-resistant infections can be treated effectively with a number of oral antibacterials either as monotherapy or in combination. Surgical treatment with debridement, for example, callus removal or drainage of pus form an important part of diabetic foot ulcer management especially in the presence of infection. Occasionally limited surgery including dead infected bone removal may be necessary for resolution of infection. Amputation is sometimes required as a last resort for limb or life preservation.     

Surgical site infections in older adults: epidemiology and management strategies

Surgical site infections (SSIs) represent a major source of morbidity and mortality among older adults. In this review we discuss the epidemiology and risk factors for SSIs among older adults. We also offer an overview of current treatment and management strategies for several common SSIs. Our comments focus on the following areas in order to illustrate issues of clinical importance in the older patient: (i) cardiac surgery; (ii) vascular grafts; (iii) total joint arthroplasty; (iv) breast surgery; and (v) spinal surgeries. Besides being common and relatively specific to older adults, several of these surgical procedures require the use of prosthetic materials or devices, which present unique treatment challenges in the context of infection. When an older adult does develop an SSI, it is critical for clinicians to establish an overall treatment goal for each patient. In the majority of patients, this will be either complete cure or remission followed by suppressive therapy. However, clinicians caring for older adults must consider not only the possibility of microbiological cure, but also balance the need to preserve functional status and overall quality of life. Infections associated with devices and prosthetic material can present unique treatment challenges. Treatment of significant infections often requires prolonged courses of parenteral and/or oral antimicrobial therapy, which can raise issues related to the safety and tolerability of antimicrobial agents, including higher rates of nephrotoxicity. Issues concerning overall functional status, nutritional reserve and medical co-morbidities must be taken into consideration when approaching SSIs in an older adult.     

Recent advances in the local antibiotics delivery systems for management of osteomyelitis

Chronic osteomyelitis is a challenging disease due to its serious rates of mortality and morbidity while the currently available treatment strategies are suboptimal. In contrast to the adopted systemic treatment approaches after surgical debridement in chronic osteomyelitis, local drug delivery systems are receiving great attention in the recent decades. Local drug delivery systems using special carriers have the pros of enhancing the feasibility of penetration of antimicrobial agents to bone tissues, providing sustained release and localized concentrations of the antimicrobial agents in the infected area while avoiding the systemic side effects and toxicity. Most important, the incorporation of osteoinductive and osteoconductive materials in these systems assists bones proliferation and differentiation, hence the generation of new bone materials is enhanced. Some of these systems can also provide mechanical support for the long bones during the healing process. Most important, if the local systems are designed to be injectable to the affected site and biodegradable, they will reduce the level of invasion required for implantation and can win the patients’ compliance and reduce the healing period. They will also allow multiple injections during the course of therapy to guard against the side effect of the long-term systemic therapy. The current review presents different available approaches for delivering antimicrobial agents for the treatment of osteomyelitis focusing on the recent advances in researches for local delivery of antibiotics.

HIGHLIGHTS

1. Chronic osteomyelitis is a challenging disease due to its serious mortality and morbidity rates and limited effective treatment options.
2. Local drug delivery systems are receiving great attention in the recent decades.
3. Osteoinductive and osteoconductive materials in the local systems assists bones proliferation and differentiation
4. Local systems can be designed to provide mechanical support for the long bones during the healing process.
5. Designing the local system to be injectable to the affected site and biodegradable will reduces the level of invasion and win the patients’ compliance.

     

Treatment of otitis externa in children

Inflammation of the external auditory canal can be localised or diffuse, and acute or chronic. Predisposing conditions include external trauma, loss of the canal's protective coating, maceration of the skin from water or humidity, and glandular obstruction. Acute otitis externa is generally caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa or Staphylococcus aureus. Management of patients with otitis externa includes debridement, topical therapy with acidifying and antimicrobial agents, and systemic antimicrobial therapy when indicated. The management of patients with chronic otitis externa includes cleansing and debridement accompanied by topical acidifying and drying agents. This is followed by topical antibiotics and corticosteroid preparations. Surgery is mainly used to allow cleansing and aeration and/or removal of the scarred tissue. Patients with acute localised otitis externa (furunculosis) are treated with local heat and systemic antibiotics in the inflammatory stage, and drainage in the abscess state. Mycotic external otitis is managed with topical acidifying and antifungal agents, while viral (herpes) infection is treated with topical and systemic aciclovir (acyclovir). Patients with necrotising (malignant) external otitis, which is mainly caused by P. aeruginosa and S. aureus, are treated with systemic antibiotics and, rarely, by surgical debridement. Therapy for eczematous otitis externa is first directed at the secondary infection, and thereafter at the primary dermatological condition. Prevention of recurrent external otitis is aimed at minimising ear canal trauma and the avoidance of exposure to water. Preventative use of topical acidifying agents or 70% alcohol is also advocated.     

Teriparatide therapy for bisphosphonate-associated osteonecrosis of the jaw in an elderly Japanese woman with severe osteoporosis

We report on the case of a severely osteoporotic elderly Japanese woman with bisphosphonate-associated osteonecrosis of the jaw (ONJ), who was treated successfully with teriparatide. A 79-year-old woman with severe osteoporosis and bisphosphonate-associated ONJ was treated with teriparatide after debridement of the necrotic tissue in the jaw bone. Computed tomography (CT) images revealed the bone defect in the mandible after debridement of the necrotic tissue associated with ONJ. According to the attending dentist, the ONJ healed after 2 months of therapy. After 3 months of treatment, a robust increase in the serum level of the bone formation marker, serum intact procollagen type 1 N-terminal propeptide, was noted and a repeat CT revealed improvement of the bone defect of the mandible. These results suggest the beneficial effects of teriparatide therapy in the severely osteoporotic elderly woman with ONJ.     

Treatment of chronic osteomyelitis with ciprofloxacin

The results of the treatment of twenty-one patients (age 22–66 years) with chronic bone or joint infections with ciprofloxacin were evaluated. The osteomyelitis was secondary to trauma in 12 patients, joint replacement in six, previous acute hematogenous infection in two and osteotomy in one.Stafylococcus aureus (11 times) andPseudomonas aeruginosa (9 times) were most frequently cultured. The duration of ciprofloxacin therapy averaged 76 days. Concomitant antimicrobial drugs were used in one patient only. Fifteen patients were operated during treatment; in most cases the surgical procedure consisted of a thorough debridement. Nineteen patients could be evaluated. The bacteriological results were as follows: eradication 27; marked reduction 1; eradication with recurrence 1. Contamination occurred in five patients and superinfection in two, without much influence on the final outcome. The investigator's assessment at the end of the therapy was as follows: complete success in 14 patients and partial success in seven. During the follow-up (3–13 months) the therapy was judged completely successful in 16, partially successful in four and unsuccessful in one. Two patients had minor gastric complaints during therapy and one showed a temporary slight increase in the liver transaminases.

     

清创植骨皮瓣转移治疗创伤性胫骨骨髓炎

目的 总结清创植骨及皮瓣转移治疗创伤性骨髓炎的方法和疗效.方法 2003年3月～2008年7月,对16例创伤性骨髓炎合并骨及软组织缺损病例,采用清创植骨,选择腓肠肌皮瓣10例、足背皮瓣2例、腓肠神经营养皮瓣2例、交腿皮瓣2例一期修复创面,观察术后皮瓣成活情况、骨折愈合情况及骨髓炎治愈情况.结果 术后随访6～38个月...     

外固定架结合负压封闭引流治疗Gustilo ⅢB型胫腓骨骨折的疗效分析

目的:分析外固定架结合负压封闭引流(VSD)治疗GustiloⅢB型胫腓骨开放性骨折的临床疗效。方法:选择2009年1月—2012年12月收治的GustiloⅢB型胫腓骨开放性骨折患者34例,分为两组。研究组18例,使用外固定架结合负压封闭引流治疗,均急诊给予彻底清创,复位骨折端,外固定架固定后行负压封闭引流,7¹0 d后拆除VSD,视情况给予更换VSD或植皮、皮瓣转移修复皮肤缺损及骨外露区。对照组16例,给予急诊清创外固定架固定术治疗,术后给予常规换药,视情况行植皮或皮瓣转移修复皮肤缺损及骨外露区。结果:研究组随访610 d后拆除VSD,视情况给予更换VSD或植皮、皮瓣转移修复皮肤缺损及骨外露区。对照组16例,给予急诊清创外固定架固定术治疗,术后给予常规换药,视情况行植皮或皮瓣转移修复皮肤缺损及骨外露区。结果:研究组随访6¹2个月,17例创面愈合,愈合时间为(19.3±5.2)d,1例发生骨髓炎。对照组随访712个月,17例创面愈合,愈合时间为(19.3±5.2)d,1例发生骨髓炎。对照组随访7¹3个月,13例创面愈合,愈合时间为(35.8±6.9)d,3例发生骨髓炎。结论:外固定架结合负压封闭引流治疗GustiloⅢB型胫腓骨开放性骨折操作简单,可有效处理软组织缺损,明显缩短创面修复时间,减少并发症,提高治疗效果。     

Relapse prevention and maintaining abstinence in older adults with alcohol-use disorders

Although older adults are sometimes believed to have the lowest rates of alcohol abuse as an age cohort, the prevalence of alcohol use and abuse in this group is clearly underestimated. The under-diagnosis of alcohol abuse is due, in part, to the facts that the effects of alcohol use among older adults tend to be less clearly visible than among other age groups and that older adults are less likely to seek treatment than younger age groups. An additional challenge to diagnosis may be a lack of previous alcohol abuse by the patient, as approximately one-third of older adults with alcohol-use problems first develop their drinking problem after the age of 60 years. With a demographic shift that is expected to increase the number of older adults with alcohol problems, the awareness and understanding of this problem becomes increasingly important. Under-diagnosis of problem drinking in older adults is particularly unfortunate because the risks associated with alcohol abuse and relapse for the elderly are significant. Relapse, or the return to drinking following abstinence, may follow situations that are of particularly high risk for older adults. These include situations related to anxiety, interpersonal conflict, depression, loneliness, loss or social isolation. By helping patients to monitor these high-risk situations, to identify strategies that have been successful in promoting abstinence in the past, and to become engaged in treatment, relapse may be avoided and abstinence maintained. Treatments such as cognitive-behavioural therapy, group and family therapies and self-help groups are just as effective for older adults as they are for other age groups. In fact, group and family therapies and self-help groups may be of particular benefit to older adults because of the emphasis on social support. Medicinal adjuncts are also equally effective in the elderly, but strict compliance and careful monitoring of adverse effects are especially important in patients who take multiple medications. Because of their benign adverse effect profiles, naltrexone and acamprosate are particularly good pharmacological agents for relapse prevention in older adults.     

Clinical features, diagnostic and therapeutic approaches to haematogenous vertebral osteomyelitis

This article review the clinical features and the diagnostic approach to haematogenous vertebral osteomyelitis in order to optimise treatment strategies and follow-up assessment. Haematogenous spread is considered to be the most important route: the lumbar spine is the most common site of involvement for pyogenic infection and the thoracic spine for tuberculosis infection. The risk factors for developing haematogenous vertebral osteomyelitis are different among old people, adults and children: the literature reports that the incidence seems to be increasing in older patients. The source of infection in the elderly has been related to the use of intravenous access devices and the asymptomatic urinary infections. In young patients the increase has been correlated with the growing number of intravenous drug abusers, with endocarditis and with immigrants from areas where tuberculosis is still endemic. The onset of symptoms is typically insidious with neck or back pain often underestimated by the patient. Fever is present in 10-45% of patients. Spinal infections may cause severe neurological compromise in few cases, but mild neurological deficit, limited to one or two nerve roots, was detected in 28-35% of patients. The diagnosis of haematogenous vertebral osteomyelitis may be very difficult, as the symptoms can be sometimes not specific, vague or almost absent. The usual delay in diagnosis has been reported to be two to four months, despite the use of imaging techniques: in the early diagnosis of vertebral ostemyelitis is important the role of bone scintigraphy. The general principles for the management of spine infections are non operative, consisting of external immobilization and intravenous antibiotics, followed by oral antibiotics. Indications for surgery should be given in case of absence of clinical improvement after 2-3 weeks of intravenous antibiotics, persistent back pain and systemic effects of chronic infection and with presence or progression of neurological deficit in elderly or in cervical infection. Chronic ostemyelitis may require surgery in case of a development of biomechanical instability and/or a vertebral collapse with progressive deformity.     

Rational prescribing of antibacterials in hospitalised children

The subject of this review is the rational prescribing of antimicrobial agents for the therapy of serious community-acquired infections in hospitalised infants and children. First, cost-containment strategies such as streamlining of antibacterial therapy, outpatient parenteral antibacterial therapy and sequential ('stepdown') therapy with parenteral followed by oral therapy are reviewed. In most of these areas, paediatric studies are scant or lacking. Then specific paediatric aspects of the choice of parenteral antibacterials such as penicillins, cephalosporins, aminoglycosides, macrolides and other agents are discussed. With particular reference to cost containment, rational treatment strategies for some serious bacterial infections such as meningitis, occult bacteraemia, endocarditis, osteomyelitis, arthritis, pyelonephritis, Lyme borreliosis (advanced stages) and pneumonia are proposed. In most of these disease, there is potential for cutting treatment costs and studies that compare these newer strategies with traditional treatment regimens are urgently needed.     

高原胸部火器伤的早期诊断和治疗

对 35例高原胸部火器伤的伤情及治疗进行了分析 ,伴有休克者 1 0例 ,并发症 1 0例 ,分别占2 7 1 % ,分析造成并发症的主要原因是没有及时彻底地对伤道进行清创 ,致伤造成的游离碎骨未能及时清除 ,胸腔引流不彻底及抗生素用量不足等。提出及时诊断 ,严格按战伤救治原则把握手术指征 ,尽早彻底清创 ,去除死骨 ,合理运用胸腔闭式引流和胸腔穿刺 ,加大抗感染力度 ,加强重要器官功能的支持是减少并发症和死亡率的关键。     

Infection following bone tumor resection and reconstruction with tumoral prostheses: a literature review

Bone resection is the choice treatment of malignant bone tumors. Tumor prosthesis is one of the most common solutions of reconstruction following resection of bone tumor located to the metaphysis of long bones. Periprosthetic infections are a frequent complication of limb-salvage surgery which is largely due to prolonged and repeated surgeries, as well as to the immunocompromised condition of these patients due to neoplastic treatment. Furthermore, the large exposure of tissues during this type of surgery and the dissection across vascular distributions also contributes to the high risk of infection. The authors reviewed the literature discussing the incidence of infections of tumor prosthesis implanted following resection of bone tumors, taking into account the different sites of implantation. In the English literature, the highest risk of infection which led to limb amputation was observed after proximal tibia resection and this difference was considered to be due to the poor condition of soft tissue and also after pelvic resection due to huge dead space after sarcoma resection not filled by implant. Independent of the location, the management of infected prosthesis is similar. That is, after one or more attempts at debridement and antibiotic therapy, it consists of implant removal and insertion of a new implant in a one- or two-stage procedure, with a decreased risk of failure with the two-stage procedure.