Brain birth and personal identity.

The concept of brain birth has assumed a position of some significance in discussions on the status of the human embryo and on the point in embryonic development prior to which experimental procedures may be undertaken on human embryos. This paper reviews previous discussions of this concept, which have placed brain birth at various points between 12 days' and 20 weeks' gestation and which have emphasised the symmetry of brain birth and brain death. Major developmental features of brain development are outlined, including the gradualness with which new features generally appear, and also the electroencephalogram (EEG) characteristics of premature infants. From this it is concluded that, if the concept of brain birth is a valid one, it should be placed at 24-28 weeks' gestation. More importantly, it is concluded that the differences between brain development and brain death throw doubt on the concept itself.     

The reversibility of death.

The ordinary concept of death is analysed and compared with revisionary medical definitions, especially those based on irreversible loss of brain function. Prior critics of revisionary definitions have focused on the locus, the brain; I am concerned with the irreversibility condition. I argue that 1) the irreversibility condition is ambiguous, 2) it has unacceptable epistemic and other consequences on any plausible construal, and 3) irreversibility is not part of the ordinary concept of death. I conclude that recent medical definitions seek illegitimately to obtain the certainty of a weak construal of 'irreversible' along with the freedom from moral obligation of the strong construal.     

The diagnosis of brain death

No apologies are needed for returning to the subject of brain death and its definition. There has been so much public discussion that it is important for public confidence that the issues should be clarified. In the following two contributions - one from a professor of neurosurgery and the other from a lawyer - an attempt is made to convince doctors (if that is needed) and lay people alike that what appears to be a new bogy is not one at all but a confusion of thought arising from the use of new technology to treat brain-damaged patients. This, however, might not be the view of Mr Skegg (Journal of medical ethics, 2, 190) who, fearful of the situation, has argued for a statutory definition of death.

Professor Jennett discusses the findings of a conference of the Royal Colleges of the United Kingdom which met to try and remove uncertainty surrounding the diagnosis of brain death. In his view the Colleges' document is to be welcomed for `its authority and its practicality' and `should lead to more humane medical practice'. Mr Kennedy, from a legal position, comes to the same conclusion, that with a good code of practice, as advocated by the Royal Colleges, no legislation is called for.

     

The contribution of mild and moderate preterm birth to infant mortality. Fetal and Infant Health Study Group of the Canadian Perinatal Surveillance System

CONTEXT: The World Health Organization defines preterm birth as birth at less than 37 completed gestational weeks, but most studies have focused on very preterm infants (birth at <32 weeks) because of their high risk of mortality and serious morbidity. However, infants born at 32 through 36 weeks are more common and their public health impact has not been well studied. OBJECTIVE: To assess the quantitative contribution of mild (birth at 34-36 gestational weeks) and moderate (birth at 32-33 gestational weeks) preterm birth to infant mortality. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: Population-based cohort study using linked singleton live birth-infant death cohort files for US birth cohorts for 1985 and 1995 and Canadian birth cohorts (excluding Ontario) for 1985-1987 and 1992-1994. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Relative risks (RRs) and etiologic fractions (EFs) for overall and cause-specific early neonatal (age 0-6 days), late neonatal (age 7-27 days), postneonatal (age 28-364 days), and total infant death among mild and moderate preterm births vs term births (at >/=37 gestational weeks). RESULTS: Relative risks for infant death from all causes among singletons born at 32 through 33 gestational weeks were 6.6 (95% confidence interval [CI], 6.1-7.0) in the United States in 1995 and 15.2 (95% CI, 13.2-17.5) in Canada in 1992-1994; among singletons born at 34 through 36 gestational weeks, the RRs were 2.9 (95% CI, 2.8-3.0) and 4.5 (95% CI, 4.0-5.0), respectively. Corresponding EFs were 3.2% and 4.8%, respectively, at 32 through 33 gestational weeks and 6.3% and 8.0%, respectively, at 34 through 36 gestational weeks; the sum of the EFs for births at 32 through 33 and 34 through 36 gestational weeks exceeded those for births at 28 through 31 gestational weeks. Substantial RRs were observed overall for the neonatal (eg, for early neonatal deaths, 14.6 and 33.0 for US and Canadian infants, respectively, born at 32-33 gestational weeks; EFs, 3.6% and and 6. 2% for US and Canadian infants, respectively) and postneonatal (RRs, 2.1-3.8 and 3.0-7.0 for US and Canadian infants, respectively, born at 32-36 gestational weeks; EFs, 2.7%-5.8% and 3.0%-7.0% for the same groups, respectively) periods and for death due to asphyxia, infection, sudden infant death syndrome, and external causes. Except for a reduction in the RR and EF for neonatal mortality due to infection, the patterns have changed little since 1985 in either country. CONCLUSIONS: Mild- and moderate-preterm birth infants are at high RR for death during infancy and are responsible for an important fraction of infant deaths. JAMA. 2000;284:843-849     

极低出生体质量和极早早产与新生儿生存状况的关系

目的 探讨极低出生体质量和极早早产与新生儿的生存状况及相关影响因素.方法 选取2012年4月至2016年1月该院收治的极低出生体质量儿(VLBWI)和极早早产儿(VPI) 142例,选取同期出生的非VLBWI和非VPI 140例,比较入组新生儿的生存状况及远期预后,根据生存状况将VLBWI与VPI分为死亡组和存活组,对两组患儿的临床资料进行单因素和多因素Logistic回归分析.结果 出生体质量小于1 500、1 500～2 500、＞2 500 g新生儿的预后不良发生率比较,差异有统计学意义(P＜0.05).胎龄小于32周、32～37周、≥37周新生儿的预后不良发生率比较,差异有统计学意义(P＜0.05).死亡组新生儿的胎龄、出生体质量和产前使用地塞米松的比例明显低于存活组,母亲年龄、窒息、胎粪吸入、妊娠高血压综合征和机械通气比例明显高于存活组,两组比较差异有统计学意义(P＜0.05).≤28周胎龄、≤1 000 g出生体质量、窒息是影响VLBWI与VPI生存状况的独立危险因素(P＜0.05).结论 VLBWI与VPI的生存状况及远期预后不佳,易发生智力和运动障碍.     

血浆少突胶质细胞髓鞘糖蛋白水平变化在诊断早产儿脑损伤中的价值

目的 通过测定神经元特异性烯醇化酶(neuron specific enolase,NSE)和少突胶质细胞髓鞘糖蛋白(odendm-cyte-myelin glycoprotein,Omgp)水平,探讨其在早产儿脑损伤中的诊断价值.方法 选取2019年1-12月在淮安市妇幼保健院新生儿医学中心住院治疗的80例早产儿,根...     

'Brain death' and organ retrieval. A cross-sectional survey of knowledge and concepts among health professionals

A sample of 195 physicians and nurses likely to be involved in organ procurement for transplantation was interviewed about knowledge, personal concepts, and attitudes concerning "brain death" and organ donation. Only 68 respondents (35%) correctly identified the legal and medical criteria for determining death. Personal concepts of death varied widely. Most respondents (58%) did not use a coherent concept of death consistently; others (19%) had a concept of death that was logically consistent with changing the whole-brain standard to classify anencephalics and patients in a persistent vegetative state as dead. The findings demonstrate confusion about correct criteria for determining death and differences in concepts of death that might prove troublesome to the transplantation enterprise. We conclude that health professionals should do more to resolve the clinical and conceptual issues in the definition and determination of death before policies concerning organ retrieval are changed.     

Maternal brain death during pregnancy. Medical and ethical issues

We present in detail a case of a 27-year-old primigravida who was maintained in a brain-dead state for nine weeks. An apparently normal and healthy male infant weighing 1440 g was delivered. The newborn did well and was found to be growing and developing normally at 18 months of age. Although the technical aspects of prolonged life support are demanding and the economic costs are very high (+217,784), there are ample ethical arguments justifying the separation of brain death and somatic death and the maintenance of the brain-dead mother so that her unborn fetus can develop and mature.     

冠心病编码思路

本文从概念、定义和ICD-10编码规则入手,对冠心病的临床分型和ICD-10分类之间的关系进行了分析对比,对冠心病的编码思路进行了探讨。在我国,冠心病临床分为心绞痛、心肌梗死（心梗）、冠心病猝死、无症状性心肌缺血和缺血性心肌病5型。心绞痛编码于120.-。心肌梗死≤4周者编码于121.-,〉4周者编码于125．8,陈旧性者编码于125．2;但4周内复发的急性心肌梗死编码于122.-。心梗的并发症近期发生者编码于123.-;较晚或缓慢发生者编码于124或125的相应亚目;对于非心梗所特有者,则应编缺血性心脏病一节以外的码。冠心病猝死的主要编码为124．8,146只能作为附加编码,但因急性心梗早期并发症而突然死亡者不属于冠心病猝死。无症状性心肌缺血要根据三种不同亚型来编码。缺血性心肌病要将125．5作为主要编码,心力衰竭或心律失常作为附加编码。至于近年来较普遍出现的急性冠脉综合征应按其具体类型编码,即不稳定型心绞痛编120．0,非sT段抬高型心梗编121．4或122．8,ST段抬高型心梗编121．0—121．3或122．0-122．8;只有具体类型不明时方可编124．8。     

早产儿低血糖与胎龄、体重、脑损伤关系的分析

目的探讨早产儿胎龄、体重与低血糖的关系,以及早产儿低血糖与脑损伤发生率的关系。方法对129例早产儿进行血糖监测及头颅B超检测,根据胎龄、体重、血糖分组,对其低血糖、脑损伤发生情况进行χ2检验,并比较分析。结果①胎龄<31周和31~33周早产儿比较,低血糖发生率差异无统计学意义(P>0.05);前两组均比34~36周早产儿低血糖发生率增高,差异有统计学意义(P<0.05)。②体重<1500g和1500g~1999g早产儿低血糖发生率比较差异无统计学意义(P>0.05);前两组分别与2000~2800g早产儿比较,低血糖发生率均高于后者,差异有统计学意义(P<0.05)。③低血糖组脑损伤发生率高于正常血糖组,差异有统计学意义(P<0.05)。结论胎龄<34周及体重<2000g的早产儿低血糖发生率高,低血糖可导致早产儿脑损伤发生率增高,应注重早产儿的血糖早期动态检测,及时发现、纠正低血糖,减少脑损伤发生。     

颅脑降温仪在抢救重型颅脑损伤中的疗效观察

目的评价颅脑降温仪在重型颅脑损伤中的临床疗效.方法对该院2002年1月～2003年4月在常规治疗基础上,应用颅脑降温仪治疗28例重型颅脑损伤患者,与26例采用传统冰袋降温进行对比分析.结果应用颅脑降温仪治疗重型颅脑损伤患者在体温下降情况、颅内压控制、昏迷时间、病死率、并发症等方面均较对照组差异有显著性.结论颅脑降温仪治疗重型颅脑损伤可有效地缩短昏迷时间、降低死亡率及并发症,是一种安全、简便、有效的治疗方法.     

脑电图及脑干听觉诱发电位评估高危早产儿脑损伤的价值

目的：通过脑电图、脑干听觉诱发电位（BAEP）判断高危早产儿脑损伤程度,以指导早期进行康复干预及了解预后.方法：选择2008年1月至2009年3月本院出生的362例新生儿,分为足月儿组（198例）和早产儿组（164例）,其中早产儿根据是否存在并发症分为正常早产儿组（68例）和高危早产儿组（96例）,各组在生后48～72 h均进行了脑电图、BAEP两项检查,并比较各组上述两项检查的异常率以判断脑损伤发生率.分别将高危早产儿组和正常早产儿组根据胎龄分为〈32周、32＋1～35周、35＋1～37周组,采用等级相关分析胎龄与脑损伤发生率的关系.结果：足月儿组脑电图异常率明显低于正常早产儿组（21.2%vs 33.8%,P〈0.05）,足月儿组BAEP异常率亦稍低于正常早产儿组（20.2%vs25.7%）,但两组比较差异无统计学意义（P〉0.05）.高危早产儿组脑电图、BAEP异常率分别为78.1%、77.6%,明显高于正常早产儿组和足月儿组（P〈0.05）.高危早产儿及正常早产儿在胎龄〈32周、32＋1～35周、35＋1～37周各组中,脑电图的正常、轻度、重度程度以及BAEP正常、轻、中、重程度所占比例两组比较均有统计学意义（均P〈0.05）;且脑电图和BAEP损伤程度、比率与胎龄呈负相关（r1=-0.315,P1〈0.05;r2=-0.378,P2〈0.05）.结论：早产儿脑电图、BAEP检查有助于早产儿脑损伤的早期诊断、早期干预和评估预后;高危早产儿应定期动态监测脑电图、BAEP,及时评估脑功能状况及指导康复治疗.     

大鼠生后发育过程中脑细胞外间隙的解剖及生理特性的变化

大鼠脑发育是一个复杂的过程,胎儿期及生后的脑发育过程经历了组织学、细胞学和分子学的显著变化。大鼠脑的基本结构在胚胎期已形成,而不同部位之间的联系和脑功能的完善却在出生后发展,其间的许多变异是许多神经系统疾病的基础,因此生后脑发育过程仍然十分关键。尽管脑细胞微环境的概念已于150多年前被提出,但是对于在生后发育过程中发生显著变化的脑细胞外间隙的研究仍未获得显著进展。本文通过综述大鼠生后发育过程中脑细胞外间隙的解剖及生理特性的变化规律特点,阐述脑细胞外间隙在个体发育中的重要作用,有望为儿科发育相关的神经系统疾病的发生机制及有效治疗途径的探索提供相关依据。     

中国“儒、道、佛”生死伦理观比较

“儒、道、佛”生死观蕴涵了丰富的伦理思想，并积淀成中华民族生死伦理的主要元素，但三者有着许多不同之处，生死本体论不同：儒家以“仁”、道家Ⅸ“道”、佛家以“佛”为生死本体；生死价值论的不同：儒家重生的价值、道家生死价值等同、佛家重死的价值；生死态度的不同：儒家好生恶死、道家善生乐死、佛家恶生主死；生死超越论的不同：儒家由生观死、道家由死观生、佛家弃生观死。     

Danish ethics council rejects brain death as the criterion of death.

In Denmark, which alone in Western Europe has not accepted brain death as the criterion of death, the newly established Danish Council of Ethics has issued a report suggesting that in Denmark the criterion of death should still be the cessation of cardiac activity. The council bases its conclusion on the concept of death in everyday experience and its ethical implications.     

积极推动立法承认脑死亡判定标准

目前,世界上已有80多个国家承认了脑死亡的诊断标准,但我国目前仍沿用传统的死亡标准,原因是因为我们对脑死亡的概念还存在误区。对死亡观念的更新是社会进步的表现,在我国推动立法承认脑死亡标准,是医学界及法学界都要面对的重要课题。     

脑囊尾蚴病81例磁共振分析

目的: 探讨脑囊尾蚴病的临床及磁共振(MRI)特点。方法: 对81例脑囊尾蚴病患者的临床资料和头颅MRI进行回顾性分析。结果: 81例脑囊尾蚴病头颅MRI表现分为脑实质型73例、脑室型5例和混合型3例;活虫期、退变死亡期、非活动期及混杂期四期,以脑实质型和退变死亡期最常见。杀虫治疗一般需要3~5个疗程。结论: 头颅MRI可以对脑囊尾蚴病进行准确分型、分期,为用药及疗程的确定提供依据,还可用于CT检查阴性的脑囊尾蚴病的确诊。     

Benefit sharing: it's time for a definition

Benefit sharing has been a recurrent theme in international debates for the past two decades. However, despite its prominence in law, medical ethics and political philosophy, the concept has never been satisfactorily defined. In this conceptual paper, a definition that combines current legal guidelines with input from ethics debates is developed. Philosophers like boxes; protective casings into which they can put concisely-defined concepts. Autonomy is the human capacity for self-determination; beneficence denotes the virtue of good deeds, coercion is the intentional threat of harm and so on. What about benefit sharing? Does the concept have a box and are the contents clearly defined? The answer to this question has to be no. The concept of benefit sharing is almost unique in that various disciplines use it regularly without precise definitions. In this article, a definition for benefit sharing is provided, to eliminate unnecessary ambiguity.     

Re-examining death: against a higher brain criterion

While there is increasing pressure on scarce health care resources, advances in medical science have blurred the boundary between life and death. Individuals can survive for decades without consciousness and individuals whose whole brains are dead can be supported for extended periods. One suggested response is to redefine death, justifying a higher brain criterion for death. This argument fails because it conflates two distinct notions about the demise of human beings--the one, biological and the other, ontological. Death is a biological phenomenon. This view entails the rejection of a higher brain criterion of death. Moreover, I claim that the justification of the whole brain (or brain stem) criterion of death is also cast into doubt by these advances in medical science. I proceed to argue that there is no need to redefine death in order to identify which treatments ought to be provided for the permanently and irreversibly unconscious. There are already clear treatment guidelines.     

The ambiguity about death in Japan: an ethical implication for organ procurement.

In the latter half of the twentieth century, developed countries of the world have made tremendous strides in organ donation and transplantation. However, in this area of medicine, Japan has been slow to follow. Japanese ethics, deeply rooted in religion and tradition, have affected their outlook on life and death. Because the Japanese have only recently started to acknowledge the concept of brain death, transplantation of major organs has been hindered in that country. Currently, there is a dual definition of death in Japan, intended to satisfy both sides of the issue. This interesting paradox, which still stands to be fully resolved, illustrates the contentious conflict between medical ethics and medical progress in Japan.