Urinary excretion of thioethers among low-tar and medium-tar cigarette smokers

Summary The urinary excretion of thioethers was studied among smokers of medium-tar cigarettes (16.3 mg/cig.) and low-tar cigarettes (5.4 mg/cig.). The test persons (26 smokers and 11 nonsmokers) were healthy young men in the military service. The smokers had an increased excretion of thioethers into the urine (P=0.002 with Mann-Whitney U-test) when compared with the nonsmokers. No differences in the amount of urinary thioethers were detected between the low-tar and medium-tar cigarette smokers. The smokers (varying from 2.0 to 8.5 mmol/mol creatinine) had more individual variation than the nonsmokers (varying from 1.5 to 4.5 mmol/mol creatinine). Furthermore, the individual variation in the group of low-tar cigarette smokers did not markedly differ from the individual variation of medium-tar cigarette smokers.This study has been supported by a research grant (24/60) from the National Research Council for Sciences, Academy of Finland     

中国6城市低焦油香烟吸食者认知及影响因素

目的 了解北京、沈阳、上海、长沙、广州和银川6城市吸烟者中低焦油香烟吸食者的认知情况及影响因素,为防治工作提供依据.方法 使用多阶段抽样法在6城市中抽取4 817名吸烟者,调查其低焦油香烟吸食情况及相关认知,使用多变量Logistic回归分析吸烟者吸食低焦油香烟的影响因素.结果 成年吸烟者中54.2%吸食低焦油香烟,45.8%吸食普通卷烟;普通卷烟和低焦油香烟吸食者中认为吸烟对健康没有好处分别占82.9%,80.6%,戒掉低焦油香烟比较容易分别占44.1%,40.5%,有戒烟意愿分别占27.5%,22.3%,很担心吸烟会损害今后健康分别占21.7%,15.6%,对吸烟总体看法很不好或不好分别占57.1%,50.5%,差异均有统计学意义(P<0.05);6城市间低焦油香烟的吸食比例差异较大,分别为北京60.1%、沈阳56.5%、上海41.2%、长沙90.0%、广州28.1%和银川60.3%,差异有统计学意义(P<0.05);多因素分析结果 显示,吸烟者选择低焦油香烟的影响因素为城市、健康意识、戒烟意愿.结论 6城市中吸食低焦油香烟的比例差异较大,具备健康意识、戒烟意愿的人群更有可能吸食低焦油香烟.     

Early detection of nephrotoxic effects due to low-dose exposure of cadmium among cigarette smokers

The effects of low-level exposure to cadmium due to cigarette smoking on renal function were judged by the estimation of urinary levels of total proteins, cadmium, alpha-1-microglobulin (alpha1M) and glutathione S-transferase (GST) activity among 50 males (38 smokers and 12 control non-smokers). Elevated urinary cadmium levels [2.408-28.160; 9.31 +/- 7 .1 microg Cd/gm urine creatinine] were observed among the majority of smokers (24 cases, 63.16%) and these levels showed a positive correlation with age and smoking index. Furthermore, urine total proteins [115.18-652.14; 242.89 +/- 121.88 mg protein/gm urine creatinine) were increased suggesting glomerular involvement among 20 cases (52.63%) of smokers. In addition, urinary alpha1M levels (14.645-86.053; 34.05 +/- 16.83 mg alpha1M/gm urine creatinine) and urinary GST activity [0.0-0.008; 0.00015 +/- 0.0002 micromol/min/100 microl/gm urine creatinine] were elevated among 18 (47.37%) and 20 (52.63%) cases of smokers respectively. Since urinary alpha1M and GST originate from renal proximal tubules, the data of the present investigation could reflect early low-level cadmium exposure nephrotoxic effect on both the glomeruli and tubules.     

Risk of automobile accidents in cigarette smokers

I used a case-control study to identify an increased risk of motor vehicle crash (MVC) in cigarette smokers as compared to non-smokers. Information on smoking status and potential confounding factors was obtained using a self-administered mail-out questionnaire sent to 1,000 persons known to have had a MVC, and a control group of 1,100 persons with no record of MVC in the previous five years. Assessment of relative risk estimates (RR) and adjustment for confounding factors was done by logistic regression analysis. Smokers had a 1.5-fold increase in risk for MVC over non-smokers (p = .01). Also, an increased tendency to smoke while driving was associated with greater risk of MVC (X2 trend: p = .01). The basis for this association may be: 1. distraction from driving by the act of smoking. 2. behavioural differences between smokers and non-smokers. 3. carbon-monoxide toxicity. Further study is needed to determine the importance of these factors as components of the increase in risk found.     

Urinary thioethers in low tar cigarette smokers

The urinary elimination of thioethers has been studied according to the smoking habit in 52 subjects. Urinary thioethers (UT) increase with the number of cigarettes and this is specially noteworthy in individualised studies. As a contribution to clarify the relevance of smoking ‘low tar’ cigarettes, we performed a comparative study in six volunteers. Each subject smoked four types of cigarettes, namely brown normal-tar; brown low-tar; blond normal-tar; and blond low-tar, during one week for each type. UT were collected daily in the whole study. The statistical analysis revealed there are no differences despite the type of cigarettes. Probably the subject compensates the lower content of tar and nicotine by smoking each cigarette with more intensity, since the number of cigarettes/day remained constant for each subject. These results reveal the uncertainty of the claimed ‘healthiness’ of low tar and nicotine cigarettes.     

Menstrual cycle bleeding patterns in cigarette smokers

It is known that women who smoke cigarettes and use oral contraceptives are more likely to have breakthrough bleeding than women who do not smoke. In this article, we review possible mechanisms by which cigarette smoke and its constituents may contribute to irregular bleeding, highlight differences in the activities of nicotine and cigarette smoke, and postulate further studies in the area.     

Children's health in families with cigarette smokers.

Recent studies have indicated higher rates of certain respiratory conditions among children who live in households with adults who smoke cigarettes. This paper analyzes data from the 1970 National Health Interview Survey. Children in families with no smokers had an average of 1.1 fewer restricted-activity days and 0.8 fewer bed-disability days per year than did children in families with two smokers. Children in families with one smoker were in between. Acute respiratory illness accounted for the difference in disability days among children in families with different smoking characteristics. Family smoking was also measured by the combined number of cigarettes smoked by adults; children in families which smoked 45 or more cigarettes a day had 1.9 more restricted activity days and 0.9 more bed-disability days due to acute respiratory conditions than did children in families who did not smoke cigarettes. The age of the child, the number of adults in the family, the education of the family head, and the family income were all controlled and did not eliminate the relationship between children's health and family smoking.     

Stages of change and other factors in 'light' cigarette smokers

BACKGROUND: It has become well known that 'light' cigarettes are deceiving in fostering the attitude that they are 'safer' or less health damaging than regular cigarettes. The goal of this study is to analyse the smoking of 'light' cigarettes according to the progress over the stages of change to stop or reduce smoking. METHODS: A sample representing the general population of a northern German region aged 18 to 64 was drawn (T1, N=4075). 1520 smokers of 'light' and regular cigarettes were identified by a face-to-face interview and reassessed longitudinally by questionnaire 30 months later (T2, n=913). RESULTS: At baseline smokers of 'light' cigarettes, in particular males, were more likely to be contemplators or preparators in terms of smoking cessation. Those who smoked 'light' cigarettes were more likely to have made a quit attempt, were more likely to be female, at younger age, never married, higher educated and less nicotine dependent compared to smokers of regular cigarettes. The follow-up data shows that males who smoked 'light' before or changed to 'light' cigarettes were more likely to contemplate or to prepare quitting, had more often tried a quit attempt and stopped smoking more often. CONCLUSION: The results suggest that 'light' cigarettes especially by males are used for reasons of reducing or quitting smoking. It is concluded that as such they deceive the smoker and potentially hinder the process of reducing or quitting.     

Postprandial oxidative stress is exacerbated in cigarette smokers

Both cigarette smoking and high fat meals induce oxidative stress, which is associated with the pathogenesis of numerous diseases. We compared blood antioxidant status, oxidative stress biomarkers and TAG in twenty smokers and twenty non-smokers, matched for age and physical activity, in response to a high fat test meal standardized to body mass. Blood samples were collected before feeding (resting and fasted) and at 1, 2, 4 and 6 h post feeding and analysed for antioxidant capacity (trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity; TEAC), xanthine oxidase activity (XO), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), malondialdehyde (MDA) and TAG. Smoking status (P < 0.001) and time (P < or = 0.01) effects were noted for all variables, with smokers demonstrating higher values compared with non-smokers for all variables except for TEAC, for which values were lower for smokers. XO, H2O2, MDA and TAG increased following feeding with a peak response at the 4 h post feeding time point, with the opposite response occurring for TEAC. Although no interaction effects were noted (P>0.05), contrasts revealed greater values in smokers compared with non-smokers for XO, H2O2, MDA and TAG, and lower values for TEAC at times from 1-6 h post feeding (P < or = 0.05). Our findings indicate that young cigarette smokers experience an exaggerated oxidative stress response to feeding, as well as hypertriacylglycerolaemia, as compared with non-smokers. These data provide insight into another possible mechanism associating cigarette smoking with ill health and disease.     

Reactions of young adult smokers to warning labels on cigarette packages

BACKGROUND: In 1984, the United States Congress enacted legislation requiring four new warning labels for cigarettes; warning labels in the United States have not changed since then. Other countries, such as Canada, have taken a more active and aggressive approach. The purpose of this study was to examine how U.S. smokers and former smokers might respond to stronger and more graphic warnings for U.S. cigarettes packages. METHODS: Data were collected in 2003 and analyzed in 2004. The perceived impact and effectiveness of the more-explicit Canadian labels was examined among young adult smokers (n=572) and former smokers (n=191) between the ages of 18 and 24 years in the United States, using a web-based survey that allowed participants to view both the text-only and the text-plus-graphic warning labels. RESULTS: Both current and former smokers thought that cigarette warning labels with text plus graphics were substantially more of a deterrent than text-only labels. The perceived effectiveness of these labels was not only higher overall, but also for the specific areas of smoking-related health effects, prevention, cessation, and maintenance of abstinence. Few differences were noted by gender. CONCLUSIONS: The findings from this study support previous research that has found that text-plus-graphic warning labels are more salient and potentially more effective than text-only labels.     

Thioether concentration and mutagenicity of urine from cigarette smokers

Summary Urinary thioether compounds, such as mercapturic acids, can be considered as nontoxic end products of potentially alkylating agents. On the other hand, urinary mutagenicity may represent the excretion of potential mutagens that have not definitively been detoxified by the organism. It is suggested that a combined urinary thioether and mutagenicity test may be useful in monitoring people occupationally exposed to potentially alkylating compounds, in particular to mixtures of these chemicals. Exposure to cigarette smoke, containing several known mutagens and carcinogens, is expected to interfere with the test results.The excretion of mutagens and thioethers was determined in urine of smokers and nonsmokers. Smokers excrete more mutagens and thioether compounds than nonsmokers. Further, it was found that the urinary mutagenicity and thioether level are significantly related to the amount of cigarettes smoked.     

Urinary excretion of copper and zinc among cigarette smokers

The urinary levels of cadmium (Cd), zinc (Zn) and copper (Cu) were measured among 11 adult male non-smokers and 38 adult male cigarette smokers to investigate the effect of cigarette smoking on the urinary excretion of Zn and Cu in relation to urinary Cd level. The results indicated that among non-smokers, the urinary levels of Cd, Zn, and Cu were: 1.17-5.24 (3.73 +/- 1.23) microg Cd/gm urinary creatinine, 66.73-156.13 (109.28 +/- 30.27) microg Zn/gm urinary creatinine, 83.17-195.65 (126.72 +/- 41.46) microg Cu/gm urinary creatinine, respectively. The cigarette smokers were classified into two groups according to the level of urinary Cd. The first group contains 13 cases with urinary Cd levels within the normal range of non-smokers, and the urinary levels of both Zn and Cu were observed to be also within the normal range of non-smokers (2.14-4.98 (3.85 +/- 0.97) microg Cd/gm urinary creatinine, 69.40-150.59 (97.61 +/- 21.39) microg Zn/gm urinary creatinine, 85.33-137.42 (96.11 +/- 13.60) microg Cu/gm urinary creatinine, respectively]. The second group contains 25 cases with elevated urinary Cd levels (5.44-40.37 (14.08 +/- 9.69 microg Cd/gm urinary creatinine]. The latter group was further subdivided into two subgroups according to the urinary levels of Zn and Cu. The first subgroup contains 15 cases with urinary levels of both Zn and Cu within the normal range of non-smokers [5.44-13.58 (7.74 +/- 2.11) microg Cd/gm urinary creatinine, 69.54-133.46 (96.95 +/- 22.91) microg Zn/gm urinary creatinine, 93.06-191.90 (133.7 +/- 32.80) microg Cu/gm urinary creatinine, respectively]. The second subgroup contains 10 cases with elevated urinary levels of Zn and/or Cu [13.81-40.37 (23.57 +/- 8.74) microg Cd/gm urinary creatinine, 141.53-511.11 (284.76 +/- 132.45) microg Zn/gm urinary creatinine, 193.06-705.48 (388.49 +/- 158.66) microg Cu/gm urinary creatinine, respectively). In the latter subgroup it was noted that only one case showed elevated levels of urinary Cd and Zn but not Cu, while another case showed increased urinary Cd and Cu levels but not Zn. The results of the present investigation suggest that urinary Cd, at a certain level, may be accompanied by increased urinary excretion of both Zn and Cu among cigarette smokers.     

Life expectancies of cigarette smokers and nonsmokers in the United States

This research employs the National Health Interview and the National Mortality Followback Surveys to calculate life expectancies by age and sex for white nonsmokers, former smokers, and current smokers in the United States in 1986. In general, life expectancies are higher for never smokers than for former smokers, and higher for former smokers than for current smokers. Heavy smokers have lower life expectancies than persons with all other smoking statuses; indeed, compared to never smokers, heavy smokers at age 25 can expect at least a 25% shorter life. Gender differences in life expectancies were found to persist even with the elimination of smoking. Differences in life expectancy by sex thus appear to be due, in part, to cigarette smoking, but also to occupational, environmental, and sociodemographic factors.     

Vitamin E suppresses increased lipid peroxidation in cigarette smokers

Cigarette smoke contains many xenobiotics, including oxidants and free radicals, which can increase lipid peroxidation. Recently, breath pentane output (BPO) has been recognized as a good indicator of lipid peroxidation. Vitamin E is known to be a potent free radical scavenger which can protect biological membranes against oxidative damage. We investigated the effect of vitamin E (dl-alpha-tocopherol) on lipid peroxidation in 13 healthy smokers. The results showed (1) smokers had increased BPO as compared with 19 healthy non-smokers (16.3 +/- 1.9 vs 5.8 +/- 0.5, pmol/kg body weight/min, p less than 0.001) although both groups had comparable plasma vitamin E and selenium concentrations, (2) supplementation with vitamin E (800 mg/day for 2 weeks) decreased BPO in smokers, and (3) the concentration of plasma selenium-dependent glutathione peroxidase was restored to normal in those smokers (five out of 13) in whom this was low initially. We conclude that a normal plasma concentration of vitamin E does not prevent this increase of lipid peroxidation in smokers but that substantial doses of vitamin E will significantly reduce this increased lipid peroxidation. If a major function of vitamin E is to protect lipids from peroxidation, then smokers have a conditioned insufficiency of vitamin E on a normal diet.     

Smoking topography and biomarkers of exposure among Japanese smokers: associations with cigarette emissions obtained using machine smoking protocols

Objectives

Although the relative risk of lung cancer due to smoking is reported to be lower in Japan than in other countries, few studies have examined the characteristics of Japanese cigarettes or potential differences in smoking patterns among Japanese smokers.

Methods

To examine tar, nicotine and carbon monoxide (TNCO) emissions from ten leading cigarettes in Japan, machine smoking tests were conducted using the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) protocol and the Health Canada Intense (HCI) protocol. Smoking topography and tobacco-related biomarkers were collected from 101 Japanese smokers to examine measures of exposure.

Results

The findings indicate considerable variability in the smoking behavior of Japanese smokers. On average, puffing behaviors observed among smokers were more similar to the parameters of the HCI protocol, and brands with greater ventilation that yielded lower machine values using the ISO protocol were smoked more intensely than brands with lower levels of ventilation. The smokers of “ultra-low/low” nicotine-yield cigarettes smoked 2.7-fold more intensively than those of “medium/high” nicotine-yield cigarette smokers to achieve the same level of salivary cotinine (p = 0.024). CO levels in expiratory breath samples were associated with puff volume and self-reported smoking intensity, but not with nominal values of nicotine-yield reported on cigarette packages.

Conclusions

Japanese smokers engaged in “compensatory smoking” to achieve their desired nicotine intake, and levels of exposure were greater than those suggested by the nominal value of nicotine and tar yields reported on cigarette packages.     

A prospective study of psychological and socioeconomic characteristics, health behavior and morbidity in cigarette smokers prior to quitting compared to persistent smokers and non-smokers

Psychosocial factors influencing smoking cessation were studied in current smokers prior to quitting. Two questionnaires were sent in 1975 and 1981 to adult members of the Finnish Twin Cohort. The 1975 response rate was 89%, and 89% of those eligible replied again in 1981. Analysis was done on data from one twin pair member only. Three groups were identified: 3617 never smokers, 2654 persistent smokers, and 823 quitters (i.e. current smokers in 1975, former smokers in 1981). Univariate and multivariate comparisons of baseline psychosocial variables for quitters and persistent smokers were performed in men aged 20-34 and 35-54 and women aged 20-39. Among women and young men quitters were better educated and scored lower on neuroticism. Young male quitters also slept longer, had been less often unemployed and drank less alcohol and coffee. Among middle-aged men quitters were more often married, slept longer, and had higher life satisfaction. The possibility that the influence of psychosocial factors on chronic disease may be mediated in part through changes in smoking behavior is discussed.