Development of an on-line Irish food composition database for nutrients

Food composition databases underpin national dietary surveys, support epidemiological and experimental research in human nutrition and are essential in the development of food regulations and dietary guidelines. To date, nutrition researchers in Ireland have not had access to national food composition data and have relied heavily on borrowed data—mainly from the United Kingdom. The aim of this project was to compile an on-line Irish food composition database, which is compatible with international standards. Data on foods specific to the Irish population, including commonly consumed manufactured products, composite dishes and nutritional supplements, were collected between 1997 and 2006 during national dietary intake surveys. In conjunction with EuroFIR (European Food Information Resource Network of Excellence), these foods have been compiled using standardised methodology. The database comprises 938 foods, with values for 41 components. Values for packaged products were sourced from manufacturers and values for composite dishes were calculated from ingredients. Homemade meat, fish and vegetable dishes, manufactured cereal products and nutritional supplements are the key foods in the database. The Irish food composition database is available on-line (http://www.ucc.ie/en/ifcdb) and is incorporated in the EuroFIR eSearch facility (http://www.eurofir.eu) alongside other European national and specialised food composition databases.     

Development of a food composition database to study complementary feeding: An Italian experience

Food Composition Databases (FCDBs) are important tools for epidemiological research, public health nutrition and education, clinical practice and nutrition declaration on food labels. The aim of this paper is to describe the methodology used to compile a FCDB for the analysis on the dietary intake of an Italian cohort of infants, and to assess its strengths and weaknesses. Dietary data were collected using a 3-DD records compiled at 6, 9 and 12 months of age of the infants. We developed a FCDB that contains data from the Italian and the USDA food composition databases and other sources. Our FCDB includes 563 food derived from the analysis of 623 3-DD records. Non-commercial products are more consumed than commercial products (25.5% vs. 9.1% at 6 months, 58.4% vs. 18.1% at 9 months and 77.8% vs. 11.3% at 12 months) but the latter are the main source of missing data (>70% in each database, with the exception of the energy components), which is one of the major weaknesses of this tool. An integrated system of data collection (NUTRIRETE.lab) that brings together food composition data from public and private laboratories will allow us to build a more complete and representative food composition database.     

Mineral content of Pakistani foods: An update of food composition database of Pakistan through indirect method

Analysis of nutrients to develop new or update food composition database is costly and time consuming. An alternate approach is to add the data on nutrients from existing literature using guidelines set by International Network of Food Data Systems (INFOODS). The currently available database for food composition in Pakistan is fairly old (2001) and thus, needs to be updated. In the present study mineral content of various foods from Pakistan was collected from existing literature and scrutinized against a set of criteria for inclusion in updated food composition database of Pakistan. Data for 37 food items with eight minerals (calcium, iron, zinc, phosphorus, magnesium, potassium, sodium and copper) fits under the criteria therefore is included in updated database for foods of Pakistan. Additionally, chromium, cobalt, cadmium, lead, nickel and manganese were also updated for 16 food items. Further, selected mineral content (iron, zinc, phosphorus and calcium) was compared with food composition Table of Pakistan (published in 2001). Comparison results showed that mineral content for most of the foods vary among two databases. The present study demonstrates feasibility of updating food composition databases thorough scientific reports on food products of a particular country.     

Methodology for assigning appropriate glycaemic index values to an Australian food composition database

We aimed to produce an updated Australian glycaemic index (GI) database based on a systematic method. GI values were assigned to the 3871 unique foods in an Australian food composition database. Following the method, 1124 (29%) foods had less than 2.5 g of available carbohydrates per 100 g and were assigned a GI of 0, and 416 (11%) foods had a direct match in one of the three data tables used. The GI value of a ‘closely related’ food was assigned to 1793 (46%) foods; 135 foods (3%) had their GI values calculated using the weighted average GI method; 391 (10%) foods were assigned the median GI of their corresponding food subgroup, and 12 (<1%) foods were assigned a GI of 0 because they were not significant sources of carbohydrates in a typical diet. For the 3634 foods which received a GI value in the 2009 assignment, 1954 (53.8%) had an updated GI value, and the mean ± SD difference between the 2009 and current assigned values was +3.0 ± 16.0 units (paired sample t-test p < 0.001). Acknowledging some limitations, this database will enhance the utility of the GI concept in research and clinical settings in Australia (199 words).     

Nutrient profile of black coffee consumed in Serbia: Filling a gap in the food composition database

Accurate food composition data is essential in calculating the nutrient intake of a population based upon its consumption statistics. In the Serbian Food Composition Database (FCDB) there is a lack of reliable analytical data for black coffee, even though this is one of the most abundantly consumed beverages. In addition to evaluating the nutritional significance of black coffee consumption in Serbia, this work provides analytical data for inclusion in the Serbian FCDB, and the interchange through EuroFIR FoodEXplorer. Macronutrient, caffeine, chlorogenic acids (CGA), fatty acids and mineral content were analysed in a composite sample of roasted ground coffee, as well as in weak and strong infusions prepared in a traditional way. The macronutrient content of black coffee is in accordance with data from other FCDBs, confirming it to be of low-energy value and a modest contribution to the dietary intake of macronutrients. At the same time, consuming 200 mL (2 cups) of a strong infusion per day could provide more than 7.5% of the daily reference intake of potassium. The obtained results for caffeine and CGA in the investigated coffee infusions highlight the generally high daily consumption of these biologically active non-nutrient compounds among the Serbian population.     

Differences in nutrient intake during a Greek Orthodox Christian fasting and non-fasting week, as assessed by a food composition database and chemical analyses of 7-day weighed food samples

This study aimed to assess the differences in nutrient composition of two diets, as estimated by a food composition database developed at the University of Crete, Greece, and by chemically analyzing duplicate portions of the diets. For this purpose, one healthy monk was asked to collect all foods consumed during a fasting (as indicated by Greek Orthodox Christian rituals) and a non-fasting week. Weekly samples were homogenized and frozen for chemical analysis. At both fasting and non-fasting weeks, food consumption was recorded using 7-day weighed food records. The food composition database provided a rough estimate of dietary intake, since differences greater than 15% between the two methods were found in both diets for total fat, dietary fibre, dietary cholesterol, plant sterols, iron, sodium and vitamins E and B-12. The discrepancies between the two methods can be minimized by regularly updating the food composition database and by incorporating reliable nutrient values for local foods. This will improve the reliability of studies examining the effect of dietary patterns on health, allow nutrient and dietary pattern comparisons and data exchange between countries and permit the incorporation of the nutrient composition of local products in European food composition networks.     

Reliability of a systematic methodology to estimate added sugars content of foods when applied to a recent Australian food composition database

This study aims to assess the reliability of a previously published method for estimation of added sugars content of foods when applied to the latest Australian food composition database, AUSNUT2011-2013. Two researchers independently applied a previously published, 10-step, stepwise methodology to estimate added sugars content of 5740 foods in AUSNUT2011-2013. The added sugars content of individual foods estimated by the two researchers was compared using paired sample t-tests and Pearson's correlations. Kappa statistics were used to assess the consistency between two researchers in steps chosen. Overall 4126 foods (72% of all foods in AUSNUT2011-2013) were assigned an estimated value based on objective criteria (Steps 1–6), and 1614 (28%) were assigned a subjectively estimated value (Steps 7–10). While statistically significant, the mean difference between the values estimated by the two researchers was small (0.7 g; SD 4.6 g). The kappa statistic (0.761; p < 0.001) indicated good inter-researchers agreement in steps chosen. Excellent correlations were observed between the two sets of values where the two researchers used the same step. In conclusion, the method has good reliability when applied to the new AUSNUT2011-2013. Further studies to examine its reliability when applied to food composition databases from other countries is warranted.     

Update of the Moroccan food composition tables: Towards a more reliable tool for nutrition research

The last food composition table (FCT) for Morocco was published in 1984 and has not been updated since. Our study aimed at bringing this FCT up to date, taking into account the current Moroccan population’s diet. To collate nutrient information, we used the indirect method based on existing data published in the scientific literature. The primary data sources for compiling this table were local FCTs. International food composition data were used as an alternative source when Moroccan data were not available. This updated FCT includes information on 38 nutrient components, for 587 food items commonly consumed in Morocco. These foods represent an addition of 79 % of foods in the FCT. About 7 % of nutritional values were derived from Moroccan data sources and about 93 % from international sources, namely Tunisia, West Africa, France, UK, and USA. We were unable to find approximately 20 % of nutrient estimates. This updated FCT provides information on foods and dishes commonly consumed in Morocco and it can be used as a tool to foster nutritional research and to design public health strategies in Morocco. This work is a first step towards updating a standardized Moroccan FCT, which will need to be complemented with high-quality composition data.     

中国膳食暴露评估数据库食物分类及编码研究

目的 对膳食调查及污染物监测数据进行分类和编码,为构建中国膳食暴露评估数据库奠定基础.方法 采用国际食品法典委员会(Codex Alimentarius Commission,CAC)食品法典(CODEX)的食物分类与我国食物成分表食物分类原则相结合的方式,按照食物所属组别前2位英文字母代表该食物的种类或来源,后4位数字代表该食物在CAC食物分类系统中排列序号的方式,对我国1 810 703条膳食消费量和487 810条污染物监测数据进行分类和编码.凡在CAC食物编码中找到对应编码的,一律采用CAC编码,对CAC编码中没有的食物则按CAC编码原则新增编码.结果 我国膳食消费数据分为6个大类、19个种类、75个组别,污染物监测农产品对应499个编码;相比CAC编码系统新增F(糖果类小食品)与G(饮料)2个大类、4个种类、33个组别、302个编码.新增组别大多为罐头类、饮料类、糖果类、肉制品类等动植物类加工食物,新增食物类别和编码大多是具有中国特色的食物.结论 初步实现了中国食物分类和编码与CAC分类编码系统的接轨,为膳食暴露评估奠定了数据交流的基础.     

The importance of food composition data in recipe analysis

The estimation of the nutrient content of a food from its ingredients, or recipe analysis, can be a cost‐effective alternative to chemical analysis for a range of applications. For example, recipe analysis is used in menu planning for institutions and special diets, dietary assessment and food composition databases. More recently, it has become important for assessing whether school meals are meeting guidelines, for calculating ‘calories on the menu’ in food service outlets, for nutritional labelling, and in magazines, cookery books and recipe websites. Robust food composition data, such as the recently published Seventh Summary Edition of McCance and Widdowson's The Composition of Foods, are essential for recipe analysis, providing the ‘established and accepted’ source of information required for nutritional labelling. In addition, the new summary edition contains information on weight change, edible conversion factors and vitamin retention values which are invaluable when undertaking recipe calculations. There are, however, many challenges in recipe analysis, including sourcing appropriate nutrient values, converting ingredient quantities from units and household measures to weights, and assigning weight change factors. The new edition is a welcome and invaluable resource for recipe analysis, but the nutrient values and associated data (e.g. weight change and portion sizes) need to be reviewed, updated and expanded on an ongoing basis in order to reflect the changing food supply.     

Quality control materials development for proximate composition determination in baby foods to enhance the Portuguese food composition database: Packaging conditions

Food matrix reference materials play an important role in the quality of data used in food composition databanks concerning the precision, trueness and accuracy of analytical values. In this work the feasibility studies according to ISO 34 (ISO, 2000) of two commercial baby foods (ready-to-eat baby soup and milk-based powdered infant formula) were evaluated to check for their suitability as quality control materials for the analysis of moisture, protein, fat, ash and acidity. The suitability of plastic packaging materials to guarantee the reference materials’ characteristics is discussed. Official methods of analysis were used to evaluate the homogeneity and to monitor short-term and long-term stability studies. ANOVA was carried out to confirm homogeneity within and between samples. ISO 34 method was applied to monitor stability at different temperatures. The coefficients of variation obtained between sachets for milk-based powdered infant formula were less than 4.4% for moisture and 0.5% for fat. The stability data over 8.5 months storage period at 20 °C, 5 °C and ?20 °C and ?70 °C indicate that both materials are stable depending on the parameter studied and temperature. According to results, quality control materials (QCMs) prepared in agreement with ISO 34 requirements are a valuable tool in food composition analysis.     

The evolution of food composition databases in Australia: Applying data from 1944 to 2007 to current day dietary records

Pre 1980, Australian food composition data were printed tables and based largely on overseas values. Improvements in analytical methods, available technology and changes to the food supply led to a transition to electronic and later online databases. Currently dietary analysis of food intake data can be completed using food composition databases with very few users drawing on printed food composition tables. This study aimed to examine the nutrient output from different food composition data tables from 1944 to 2007 and describe the challenges faced when applying it to a present day dietary intake dataset from 2013. A two-step process was applied to analyse baseline food record data from the feasibility study of an interdisciplinary lifestyle intervention trial using food composition databases from 1944, 1948, 1954, 1968, 1977, 1991, 1999 and 2007. Differences in food data across all time points were determined with 2007 as the comparator database. Data were available for protein, fat, carbohydrate, thiamin, vitamin C, calcium and iron across the eight databases however nutrient data were not compared due to a lack of food matches between the databases. Differences in reported food composition data over time emphasizes the importance of using timely food composition data matched to the time period of the dietary intake data.     

Compiling glycemic index and glycemic load values for addition to a food composition database

The glycemic index (GI) provides an indication of a food's carbohydrate quality by measuring the blood glucose response to consuming the food. The glycemic load (GL) is calculated as the GI times the available carbohydrate in a fixed amount of the food. GI and GL are currently of interest for the study of associations of diet and chronic disease including diabetes, cardiovascular disease, cancer and obesity. An international table of GI values is available and provides a compilation of currently available data. The purpose of this project was to use these data, as well as other available references, to expand the Cancer Research Center of Hawaii Food Composition Table (FCT) to include GI and GL values. All of the individual foods in the FCT (n=1592) were assigned GI values as a direct match (n=181), imputation (n=948), calculated value (n=208), or assigned a zero value (n=255). GL per 100 g was then calculated using the assigned GI and available carbohydrate per 100 g of food. The addition of GI and GL values to the FCT will allow researchers to estimate the effect of dietary carbohydrate quality on various health outcomes.     

Key foods in Sweden: Identifying high priority foods for future food composition analysis

High quality food composition data are essential in cutting-edge research, for example on diet and health, so regular updates and improvements of food composition data are necessary. However, food analyses are expensive, and for optimal use of resources, tools to aid prioritisation are required. This study sought to identify key foods in the Swedish diet, in order to set priorities for future nutrient analyses of foods. A slightly modified version of the key foods approach developed by the Nutrient Data Laboratory in the United States was used. Existing nutrient values were combined with food consumption data from the national dietary survey Riksmaten Adults 2010–11. Key foods were identified group-wise using key nutrients for each food group. Of the 1894 foods included in the survey, 320 (17%) were identified as key foods contributing 75% of intake of the key nutrients in each food group. These key foods will be prioritised in future food composition analyses.     

Techniques to evaluate changes in the nutritional profile of food products

Food products are continuously reformulated by manufacturers; however, the monitoring of chemical compositional changes is rare. The objective of this study was perform a comparative evaluation of the nutritional profile of specific Brazilian food groups from 2003 and 2013 using various methods of analysis. Amounts of carbohydrate, lipid, protein, dietary fiber (DF) and energy were evaluated in 259 products distributed in four food groups. Products from each group were evaluated by percentage change, separated by principal component analysis (PCA) and hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA). Separation was more clearly observed through the use of HCA than PCA. In the majority of the clusters, a significant difference was observed in at least one component. For instance, a large number of products (53%) in the milk group showed a reduction in the amount of lipids, and products in the cereals and meat groups showed increased amounts of DF (55%) and lipids (40%), respectively. Therefore, the joint techniques applied allowed nutrient content differences to be assessed both in a general manner (percentage change) as well as through the identification of the nutrients in foods that had changed significantly. The results emphasized the need for the periodic monitoring of the nutritional profile of foods.     

The importance of harmonising and sustaining food composition data across Europe

Summary  Food composition data are essential for a wide variety of activities, including public health nutrition, research, food labelling and government policy. Food composition data play a particularly important role in four sectors in Europe, namely health, trade regulation and legislation, agriculture and the environment. The need to continue the harmonisation of food composition data already achieved through European collaboration can be clearly identified and evidenced. Harmonisation is not exclusively a technical issue, but also entails creating durable and sustainable structures to maintain the viability of food composition data. These and related issues are currently being addressed by the EuroFIR Network of Excellence (project number FP6-513944, http://www.eurofir.net ).     

Update of a database for estimation of whole grain content of foods in Australia

Food composition data is essential for calculating consumption based on reported dietary intake. Inclusion of the whole grain content of foods in food composition databases is limited. In Australia, quantification of whole grain composition does not include all foods within the current survey database, AUSNUT (Australian Food, Supplement and Nutrient) 2011–13. This study aimed to update an existing Australian whole grain database to include all foods and food products within AUSNUT 2011–13 (n = 5741). Whole grain content (g) per 100 g was calculated using a systematic recipe-based approach, and input from industry stakeholders, product packaging, and ingredient lists. Overall 590 foods were identified as containing whole grain. Cereals and cereal products formed the majority (43%) of the database. Foods with whole grain content 100.0 g/100 g were raw or puffed whole grains, whole grain flours, and ready to eat cereals made from 100% whole grains. Considerable variation in whole grain content exists between and within food groups. The updated database may be a useful tool for assessing whole grain content of Australian food intake data. Application will allow estimation of whole grain intake in highly varied Australian population groups.     

Nutrient composition of six wild edible Mediterranean Asteraceae plants of dietary interest

Interest in wild leafy vegetables has significantly increased in Europe, and elsewhere, because they provide high nutrient levels and potential health benefits. Some Asteraceae species are widely cultivated, and many non-cultivated species are also traditionally eaten as green vegetables; however, the information on their nutrient composition is scarce. This study presents useful data (proteins, fat, available carbohydrates, soluble/insoluble fibre and mineral content) of interest for furthering the knowledge of the nutritional value of six wild Asteraceae species traditionally consumed in many areas in Mediterranean countries. These rarely studied species are Taraxacum obovatum (Willd.) DC., Chondrilla juncea L., Sonchus oleraceus L., Cichorium intybus L., Scolymus hispanicus L. and Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn. From the results obtained, these species are notable for their high fibre content (2.3–13.4 g/100 g), K (375–1772 mg/100 g) and Ca (16–472 mg/100 g), compared to most conventional vegetables. C. juncea can contribute to fibre and micronutrient intakes, particularly Mn (with values of up to 50% of daily Recommended Dietary Allowances for adults). These new findings suggest that these plants can be considered as valuable food resources in the traditional Mediterranean diet, allowing their incorporation into food nutrient databases.     

Google-truthing to assess hot spots of food retail change: A repeat cross-sectional Street View of food environments in the Bronx,New York

Google Street View (GSV) images can be used to “ground-truth” current and historical food retail data from approximately 2007 - when GSV was launched in a few US cities - to the present, facilitating analyses of food environments over time. A review of GSV images of all food retailers listed in a government database of licensed establishments in the Bronx, New York enabled records to be verified, businesses classified, and retail change quantified. The data revealed several trends likely to affect food access and health: increasing overall numbers of food retailers; the growth of dollar stores; and numerous openings, closings, and ownership changes across all food retail segments. Hot spot analysis identified statistically significant clusters of new dollar stores and bodegas, purveyors of less healthy processed foods, in lower-income neighborhoods in the South Bronx that face elevated rates of diet-related diseases. This article demonstrates the benefits and limitations of using GSV to conduct “virtual” food environment research.