Improving the School Environment to Reduce School Violence: A Review of the Literature*

BACKGROUND: School violence can impact the social, psychological, and physical well‐being of both students and teachers and disrupt the learning process. This review focuses on a new area of research, the mechanisms by which the school environment determines the likelihood of school violence. METHODS: A search for peer‐reviewed articles was made in six databases and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's report on school‐violence interventions. Twenty‐five articles that attempted to understand the influence of either the school social or physical environment in determining teacher and student perceptions of safety and experiences of violence were included. RESULTS: Most of the included articles were cross‐sectional surveys of junior high or high school students and staff. As articles used different measures of the school physical and social environment, a classification system was created. Using this system, studies show that schools with less violence tend to have students who are aware of school rules and believe they are fair, have positive relationships with their teachers, feel that they have ownership in their school, feel that they are in a classroom and school environment that is positive and focused on learning, and in an environment that is orderly. CONCLUSION: The school social and physical environment appears to offer intervention opportunities to reduce school violence. However, the lack of consistency in school environment variables as well as the lack of longitudinal and experimental research designs limits the applicability of these findings.     

Why adolescents do not attend school: The views of students and parents

Despite the magnitude and importance of the problem, little is known about why many students are absent from school. This study assessed what a sample of excessively absent students and their parents believed were the reasons for the students' absences. In response to an openended question about their main reason for absence, almost half of the students reported a health-related reason. When asked whether any of 15 potential problems contributed to their absence, many reported common and acute physical illnesses, headaches or stomachaches, and other aches or pains. Half mentioned factors relating to low motivation or a concern about the school environment. The parents' responses were remarkably similar except they were more likely to cite emotional problems of the student, school violence, and racial problems. When individual student's responses were compared with those of his or her parents, agreement on individual items were little better than would be expected by chance.     

唐山市中小学校园暴力发生情况及影响因素分析

目的 了解河北省唐山市中小学校园暴力流行病学特征及危险因素,为加强唐山地区校园暴力干预措施提供科学依据。方法 采用自编问卷对1414名唐山市中小学生2008年4月-2009年4月暴力发生情况进行自填式问卷调查;采用SPSS11.5软件进行统计分析,应用χ²检验对施暴行为进行单因素分析,采用Logistic回归模型对中小学生施暴行为进行多元回归分析。结果 在1414名被调查者中,校园暴力发生率为53.0%,其中躯体暴力发生率为36.3%,心理暴力发生率为31.5%,性暴力发生率为5.5%;50.8%的学生曾遭受过暴力,16.7%的学生有过施暴行为;男女生施暴行为分别为21.7%和11.8%;多因素Logistic回归分析发现,有过暴力经历、目睹过暴力事件、支持暴力观点、有不良行为、家庭高收入的学生及男生对他人施暴的危险性更大(OR值分别为5.131,3.425,1.967,1.646,1.376,1.499)。结论 唐山市中小学校校园暴力发生率较高,校园暴力危险因素复杂,应引起学校和社会的关注并采取有效措施。     

北京市中学生校园躯体暴力行为影响因素分析

目的 了解北京市不同性别中学生校园躯体暴力行为的流行状况及其影响因素.方法 采用多阶段整群随机抽样方法抽取北京市初一到高三学生5718名,匿名填写问卷,有效问卷5660份.采用logistic回归方法进行影响因素分析.结果 北京市中学生校园躯体暴力的报告率为14.3%,男生高于女生(男生25.2%、女生5.1%).无论男女生,学校亲密度差是校园躯体暴力发生的危险因素(男生OR=1.060、女生OR=1.065);父亲初中及以下文化程度(OR=1.653)、重组/单亲家庭(OR=1.834)、低年级(初一OR=5.291、高二OR=1.526)、学习成绩较差(OR=1.470)是男生躯体暴力发生的危险因素.家庭经济状况较好(OR=0.546)、同伴关系较好(OR=0.618)、与父亲沟通容易(OR=0.756)是男生躯体暴力发生的保护因素.与母亲沟通容易(OR=0.358)是女生躯体暴力发生的保护因素.结论 校园躯体暴力的流行状况及影响因素与性别有关,应充分考虑性别差异,从个人、家庭、学校等多方面采取干预措施,预防校园躯体暴力行为的发生.     

Immigrant parents' perceptions of school environment and children's mental health and behavior

BACKGROUND: Research has increasingly identified the perception of school environment as an influential factor in children's lives. There has been sparse research attention, however, on the potential importance of parents' perceptions of school environment on child adjustment. This study examined the relationship between parents' perceptions of school environment and children's emotional and behavioral problems. METHODS: Data were derived from the New Canadian Children and Youth Study, a study of the children (aged 4‐6 and 11‐13) of immigrant parents. Analyses focused on a subsample of Mainland Chinese, Hong Kong Chinese, and Filipino immigrants in a large metropolitan area. RESULTS: Parental perception of school environment was negatively associated with physical aggression in children even after controlling for child age and gender, parental characteristics, family functioning, and aspects of acculturation. In contrast, parental perception was not significantly related to symptoms of emotional distress in children. There were some ethnic differences in perception of school environment. CONCLUSIONS: Parental perception of school environment is important to the well‐being of the children of immigrant parents, and reinforces the relevance of initiatives to improve the dynamics between parents and schools.     

唐山市某职业高中校园暴力的流行病学调查与分析

目的探讨职业高中校园暴力的发生情况及其影响因素。方法采用整群抽样方法对唐山市某职业学校学生进行问卷调查,分析各种类型暴力的发生率,并采用多因素Logistic回归分析暴力发生的危险因素。结果唐山市某职业学校校园暴力发生率为59.0%,其中男生为75.9%,女生为50.5%,暴力形式以心理暴力发生率最高,为50.7%,其次是躯体暴力,为34.8%,性暴力发生率最低,为7.2%;多因素Logistic回归分析结果表明,性别、年级、户口、逃学、看暴力电影、父母经常打骂、玩暴力游戏均是发生校园暴力的可能影响因素。结论该校校园暴力的发生率很高,一些危险因素也不容忽视,应积极采取措施预防校园暴力的发生。     

城市农民工学校小学生欺负行为与自感校园社会心理环境的关联研究

【目的】 调查城市民办农民工学校小学生的校园欺负行为发生现状,并探究与其校园社会心理环境因素的关联。 【方法】 在上海市5所民办农民工小学中以班级为单位随机整群抽取四、五年级共511名学生,利用自填问卷方式了解其现在和曾经的欺负与被欺负行为、自感校园社会心理环境及烦恼等情况。 【结果】 曾经有过被欺负经历的学生比例达28%,现在(本学期)受欺负的报告率为5.5%。不同卷入欺负事件类型的学生的“不安全感”、“自感学校斗殴频繁”、认为“教师歧视成绩差学生”的比例均显著高于与未卷入欺负行为学生,且烦恼得分也显著高于未卷入学生。 【结论】 城市民办农民工学校小学生的欺负行为与校园社会心理环境因素密切相关,应加强校园良好人际关系的干预,减少和杜绝校园欺负行为。     

校园暴力中施暴群体的成因及心理特征分析

  目的  了解小学生校园暴力施暴行为现况,探讨个人及家庭因素对校园暴力行为的影响。  方法  于2018年10月 — 2019年1月,采用分层整群抽样方法,对四川省泸州市12所小学3～5年级6 048名小学生进行匿名自填式问卷调查。  结果  调查对象校园暴力施暴行为发生率为30.20 %。家庭因素中,和兄弟姐妹关系一般（OR = 1.28,P = 0.046）、母亲文化程度较低（OR = 1.26,P = 0.036;OR = 1.42,P = 0.002;OR = 1.59,P < 0.001）、非原生家庭（OR = 1.34,P = 0.001）等是校园暴力行为的危险因素;父母未当面吵架（OR = 0.53,P < 0.001）、积极教养方式（OR = 0.54,P < 0.001）是校园暴力施暴行为的保护性因素。  结论  不良家庭结构、紧张的家庭氛围,消极教养方式与母亲文化程度较低等家庭因素都与小学生暴力行为有关,因此良好的家庭关系与氛围,优化的家庭教育形式与方法,有助于减少校园暴力行为的发生。     

Frequent fliers, school phobias, and the sick student: school health personnel's perceptions of students who refuse school

BACKGROUND: This study explored school personnel's perceptions of school refusal, as it has been described as a “common educational and public health problem” that is less tolerated due to increasing awareness of the potential socioeconomic consequences of this phenomenon. METHODS: In‐depth interviews were conducted with school personnel at the middle school (N = 42), high school (N = 40), and district levels (N = 10). The findings focus on emergent themes from interviews with school health personnel (N = 12), particularly those themes related to their perceptions of and role in working with school‐refusing students. RESULTS: Personnel, especially school health services staff, constructed a typification of the school‐refusing student as “the sick student,” which conceptualized student refusal due to reasons related to illness. Personnel further delineated sick students by whether they considered the illness legitimate. School health personnel referenced the infamous “frequent fliers” and “school phobics” within this categorization of students. Overarching dynamics of this typification included parental control, parental awareness, student locus of control, blame, and victim status. These typifications influenced how personnel reacted to students they encountered, particularly in deciding which students need “help” versus “discipline,” thus presenting implications for students and screening of students. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, findings suggest school health personnel play a pivotal role in screening students who are refusing school as well as keeping students in school, underscoring policy that supports an increased presence of school health personnel. Recommendations for school health, prevention, and early intervention include the development of screening protocols and staff training.     

Is Immigrant Status Relevant in School Violence Research? An Analysis With Latino Students

Background: The role of race and ethnicity is consistently found to be linked to the likelihood of students experiencing school violence–related outcomes; however, the findings are not always consistent. The variation of likelihood, as well as the type, of student‐related school violence outcome among the Latino student population may be attributed to immigrant status. Methods: Drawing from the Education Longitudinal Study of 2002, this research investigates if the role of immigrant status and English proficiency are pertinent for 1457 nationally representative public school Latino students’ experiences with school violence–related outcomes. Results: Third‐generation immigrant students were more likely than first‐ and second‐generation students to be victimized while at school, as well as receive a formal disciplinary school sanction. On the other hand, first‐generation immigrant children were less likely to be a victim of crime while at school and receive a formal disciplinary sanction in comparison to second‐ and third‐generation immigrants. However, first‐generation immigrant students were the most likely to feel unsafe at school. Additionally, nonnative English‐speaking students were more likely to report being a victim of school violence in comparison to native English speakers. Conclusions: This study indicates that immigrant status–related variables should be included in school violence research. Furthering the investigation of school and local community characteristics of immigration and assimilation and their impact upon children’s lives and their exposure to violence is essential for a growing immigrant population.     

合肥市中小学生暴力行为的流行病学调查

目的 了解合肥市城区中小学生暴力行为的流行特征。方法 采用两阶段整群抽样法,从城区随机抽取4所学校3064名中小学生接受调查。结果 暴力月发生率为16.22％,男生高于女生(X2=25.13,P=0.000)。同学是施加攻击的主要人群,占45.80％,以空手打(37.42％)、辱骂(31.21％)、恐吓(20.88％)为主,使用棍棒、利器等占10.49％。校园是学生暴力行为发生的主要场所,占46.08％,家庭和校外分别占28.41％和25.51％,场所分布差异有显著性(P=0.000)。3.33％的学生因此导致骨折,0.51％因此而致残。经常攻击他人者97人,占3.21％,被对方激怒是致使他们实施攻击的主要原因(47.38％)。结论 合肥市中小学生中的暴力行为较为严重,应强化素质教育,改善校园环境,预防和控制学生暴力的发生。     

Students who carry weapons to high school: Comparison with other weapon-carriers

Purpose: To determine if those who have recently carried a weapon on school grounds differ from those who carry weapons elsewhere. We hypothesized that involvement in other problem behaviors and exposure to school crime and violence would be associated with risk for weapon carrying on school grounds.Methods: The data for this study were from the 1995 Youth Risk Behavior Survey of 10,904 high school students. Logistic regression analysis was used to examine risk for weapon carrying on school grounds.Results: Among the students who carried a weapon, 48% carried a weapon on school grounds. Female gender, lower parental education levels, substance use on school grounds, involvement in physical fights, exposure to school crime and violence, frequency of weapon-carrying, and gun carrying distinguished students who carried weapons on school grounds from those who carried weapons off school grounds.Conclusions: The results suggest that weapon-carrying on school grounds is associated with individual and school-related characteristics. Efforts to reduce weapon- carrying on school grounds might focus on reduction of students’ actual and perceived vulnerability to victimization, as well as by helping students understand that other problem behaviors increase their risk for violence.     

某中等职业学校护理专业学生校园暴力施暴者基本特征分析

目的 了解某职中护理专业学生校园暴力施暴者基本特征。方法 采取分层随机抽样,抽取某职中护理专业医学生150名。采用问卷调查的方式对暴力施暴者基本特征进行调查。结果 有、无吸烟行为施暴发生率分别为37.04%、19.44%(χ2=7.133,P=0.008);有、无饮酒行为施暴发生率分别为35.90%、19.44%(χ2=5.027,P=0.025);有、无逃课行为施暴发生率分别为49.12%、15.05%(χ2=20.347,P＜0.001);单亲家庭、组合家庭、正常家庭的施暴发生率分别为68.29%、25.00%、10.11%(χ2=47.232,P＜0.001);父母学历水平为大专及以上、中专/高中、初中及以下的施暴发生率分别为14.29%、20.93%、38.89%,差异有统计学意义(Z=-9.748,P＜0.001);有、无打骂的教育方式的施暴发生率分别为44.93%、13.58%(χ2=18.182,P＜0.05);住校、非住校就读的施暴发生率分别为42.47%、14.29%(χ2=14.761,P＜0.05);一、二、三年级的施暴发生率分别为19.30%、22.45%、45.45%(Z=-9.764,P＜0.001);学习成绩排班级前1/4、中等、后1/4的施暴发生率分别为13.51%、24.64%、45.45%(χ2=10.888,P=0.004)。多因素分析结果显示,与施暴行为有关的因素有:吸烟、逃课、打骂教养方式、就读形式、年级、学习成绩。其中,吸烟中的无吸烟行为、逃课中的无逃课行为、教养方式中的无打骂教养方式、就读形式中的非住校就读是防制施暴行为发生的因素(P值均＜0.05)。结论 护理专业医学生无吸烟行为、无逃课行为、无打骂教养方式、非住校就读是防制施暴行为发生的影响因素。     

大学生校园负性事件及家庭环境与抑郁症状的关联性

目的 了解大学生抑郁现状并探讨校园负性事件及家庭环境与大学生抑郁症状的关联性,为大学生心理干预提供理论依据。方法 采用多阶段分层整群抽样法抽取武汉、南京、徐州地区的大学生,使用10项流调中心抑郁自评量表(CESD-10)、自制校园负性事件和家庭环境问卷对1830名大学生进行问卷调查。采用logistic回归分析抑郁症状的影响因素。结果 大学生的抑郁症状检出率为33.17%。多因素logistic回归结果显示:在一般人口学特征中,朋友数量越少(与朋友数量>10组相比,6～10:OR=2.205,95%CI:1.022～4.757;3～5:OR=3.305,95%CI:1.662～6.574;1～2:OR=4.115,95%CI:2.056～8.237;0:OR=14.719,95%CI:6.110～35.462)、睡眠质量越差(与睡眠质量很好组相比,较好:OR=2.518,95%CI:1.839～3.449;较差:OR=11.072,95%CI:7.636～16.054;很差:OR=23.046,95%CI:9.347～56.822)以及吸烟(OR=1.559,95%CI:1.036～2.347)是抑郁发生的危险因素;在家庭环境方面,父母关系不融洽组相比于父母关系融洽组的抑郁发生风险更高(OR=1.976,95%CI:1.307～2.987);在校园负性事件方面,遭受冷暴力(OR=2.693,95%CI:1.864～3.889)、自伤(OR=2.203,95%CI:1.226～3.959)、挂科(OR=1.354,95%CI:1.004～1.824)组比无相应负性事件组的抑郁发生风险更高。结论 大学生抑郁症状检出率较高,且影响因素复杂,减少校园负性事件以及营造良好的家庭环境是降低大学生抑郁症状的有利手段。     

Mental health of Aboriginal children and adolescents in violent school environments: Protective mediators of violence and psychological/nervous disorders

The effect of school violence on mental health was examined among 12,366 Aboriginal children and adolescents, primarily First Nations, Métis, and Inuit residing off reservations in the Canadian provinces and territories. Analyses were based on the 2006 Aboriginal Peoples' Survey, a postcensal national survey of Aboriginal youth aged 6–14 years. More than one-fifth of students in the sample attended schools where violence was perceived as a problem. The occurrence of psychological or nervous disorders was about 50% higher among students exposed to school violence than among other students. School violence was a significant predictor of mental health difficulties, irrespective of socioeconomic and demographic characteristics. Virtually the entire effect was mediated by interpersonal processes, or negative quality of parent–child and peer relationships, while the effect was not explained by cultural detachment through lack of interactions with Elders and traditional language ability/use. Results underscored school violence as a significant public health concern for Aboriginal elementary and high school students, and the need for evidence-based mental health interventions for at-risk populations.     

Health career promotion in the New England area of New South Wales: a program to support high school career advisers

Objective: To facilitate the area's high school careers advisers' ability to effectively promote health careers to students. Design: Three cross sectional evaluation surveys at the end of each one‐day workshop. Setting: Conference rooms in three regional centres (Armidale, Moree and Tamworth, New South Wales). Subjects: Twenty‐two high school careers advisers. Intervention: One‐day workshop. Main outcome measures: High school careers advisers' self‐rated assessment in terms of the effective delivery of appropriate information and opportunities to network. Results: Participants agreed that the workshop conveyed relevant information (3.8), were of high standard (3.5) and enabled them to identify students wanting to pursue health careers (2.9). Networking between health professionals and career advisers was rated as the most beneficial aspect by a majority of participants (60%). The scenario was rated as a useful tool to educate advisers about health careers (3.8). Conclusion: Collaborative workshops between advisers and health professionals are useful in facilitating networks to promote health careers in high schools in rural areas. The use of a farm injury scenario as a learning tool was effective in educating advisers about health careers.     

Elementary school parents'/guardians' perceptions of school health service personnel and the services they provide

BACKGROUND: The school nurse, the school social worker, and the school counselor play an important role in promoting the health of children. Health services in the school setting provide opportunities to appraise, protect, and promote student health. The purpose of this study was to identify parents' or caregivers' perceptions and beliefs regarding the importance of schools providing various health services to their elementary school-aged children. In addition, the study examined the levels of parental support for, perceptions of, and contact with school health service personnel. METHODS: In 2005, a nationally representative random sample of 369 (51% return rate) parents of elementary school-aged children completed the questionnaire developed for this study. RESULTS: A majority of parents/caregivers reported that their child's school had a school nurse (78.8%) and counselor (60.5%), but only 22.6% reported their school had a social worker. A majority of parents/caregivers perceived full-time school nurses (86.3%), school counselors (78.6%), and school social workers (56.3%) as important or extremely important and that schools should be held responsible for having each in their child's elementary school. A majority of parents/caregivers were willing to pay an increase in yearly tax dollars to have full-time school health personnel. CONCLUSIONS: This study established a level of parental support for, perceptions of, and contact with school health service personnel. Parents were most supportive of school nurses and should be perceived as allies in ensuring job security.     

Teen Perceptions of Facilitator Characteristics in a School-Based Smoking Cessation Program

Background: Facilitators are often responsible for the implementation of public health programs, yet little is known about how they influence outcomes. Not‐On‐Tobacco (N‐O‐T) is a youth smoking‐cessation program implemented by trained facilitators. The purpose of this study was to investigate teens’ perceptions of facilitator characteristics and the relationship between those perceptions and program outcomes. Methods: Data were collected from N‐O‐T participants aged 14 to 19 who completed a survey about perceptions of facilitator characteristics that were linked to program outcomes 3 months post‐baseline (n = 769). Eight facilitator characteristics were ordered, based on importance to participants. Chi‐square tests measured differences in perceptions of facilitator characteristics according to race and sex, and an aggregate facilitator favorability score was created and analyzed in relation to program outcomes (smoking reduction or cessation vs increase/no change). Logistic regression was used to analyze facilitator characteristics’ relationship to outcomes, controlling for race and sex. Results: Participants rated facilitator characteristics of trustworthy, cares about students, and confidential as most important. Girls consistently ranked facilitator characteristics as more important than did boys. There were few significant differences based on race, except that white students rated nonjudgmental to be more important than did nonwhite students. There were no significant findings from the logistic regression, but there was a significant relationship between the aggregate facilitator favorability score and favorable changes in smoking outcomes (reduction or cessation). Conclusions: This study provides insights into the facilitator characteristics that are important to teen participants. It demonstrates that teens’ overall perceptions of facilitators contribute to their perception of how the program contributes to their success and program outcomes.     

School administrators' perceptions of factors that influence children's active travel to school

BACKGROUND: Increasing children's active travel to school may be 1 strategy for addressing the growing prevalence of obesity among school age children. Using the School Travel Survey, we examined South Carolina school district leaders' perceptions of factors that influence elementary and middle school students walking to school. METHODS: Frequency distributions and chi‐square tests were used to analyze the survey responses; open‐ended questions were reviewed qualitatively for recurring topics and themes. RESULTS: School and district leaders (N = 314) most often reported street crossing safety (54.0%) and number of sidewalks (54.0%) as priority factors that should be addressed to increase students' active travel to school, followed by distance to school (46.0%), traffic volume (42.4%), parental attitudes (27.0%), traffic speed (26.7%), neighborhood condition (24.4%), and student attitudes (10.0%). Several respondents expressed concerns about liability issues related to students' active travel to school while others reported that schools are not responsible for students' safety once students leave school grounds. Independent of their comments about liability, respondents were concerned about the safety of students while walking to school. CONCLUSIONS: Those promoting active travel to school may benefit from addressing those factors perceived as most important by school and district leaders, including street crossing safety, number of sidewalks, and by educating school and district leaders about liability and safety issues related to students walking to school.